Posted: April 30th, 2022

Assessing the Viability of Alternative Marine Fuels like Ammonia and Fuel Cells in the Energy Transition

Assessing the Viability of Alternative Marine Fuels like Ammonia and Fuel Cells in the Energy Transition
1. Introduction
The shift from conventional diesel oil to cleaner, sustainable, and more renewable energy sources is becoming an essential focus in the maritime industry. Ammonia and fuel cells are considered as two promising alternatives to heavy fuel oil and marine gas oil for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and other pollutants from shipping. The International Maritime Organization aims to reduce the total annual greenhouse gas emissions by at least 50% by 2050 compared to 2008. Such a challenging environmental target boosts the motivations and interests in developing and adopting clean energy solutions in the maritime sector. In addition, the recent requirement for the sulfur content in fuel oil used on board ships outside designated emission control areas to be no more than 0.5% mass by the IMO adds more driving forces for the energy transition in the industry. This paper aims to assess the viability of alternative marine fuels like ammonia and fuel cells in the energy transition. It begins with an introduction that provides background information and outlines the research objectives and methodology. The following section gives an overview of the current situation of marine fuels and the importance of energy transition in the maritime industry. Subsequently, the viability of ammonia as a marine fuel and fuel cell technology will be discussed in separate sections. Information will be provided respectively for fuel properties and characteristics, advantages and disadvantages, current and potential applications on ships for ammonia as well as its storage and supply infrastructure requirements. As for fuel cells, the working principles, types of fuel cells and challenges and feasibility of implementing fuel cells on ships will be presented. A comparative analysis will be conducted between ammonia and fuel cells in terms of technological readiness, environmental impacts and other important aspects in the second last section. To sum up the findings and to provide implications for the research, a conclusion will be given in the last section.
1.1 Background and significance
The background information for the work “Assessing the Viability of Alternative Marine Fuels like Ammonia and Fuel Cells in the Energy Transition” is the International Maritime Organization’s (IMO) global regulations on the sulfur content of marine fuels and the increasing concerns of air pollution and the marine environment. According to IMO, the maximum sulfur content of marine fuels is 3.5% m/m (mass by mass) globally, except for designated sulfur emission control areas (SECAs) or in the form of equivalent sulfur oxides (SOx) emission reduction, such as scrubbers. The implementation of a 0.5% m/m cap on the sulfur content of marine fuels in 2020 will require significant changes to the quality of the marine fuel oils that ships use, from heavy fuel oil (HFO) to low sulfur alternatives. As mentioned in the IMO’s 2016 study on the “costs and benefits” of implementing such a global sulfur cap, the benefit analysis concentrates on human health, and various types of air and waterborne pollution; there is no mention of climate change effects. In recent years, with the ratifications of the Paris Agreement in 2015 and the initial strategy on the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from ships by IMO in 2018, there have been shifts to investigate the feasibility of new alternative fuels and propulsion technologies in the maritime industry as parts of the global efforts to mitigate the climate impact from shipping activities. The initial strategy prescribes a reduction of CO2 emissions per transport work, as an average across international shipping, by at least 40% by 2030, pursuing efforts towards 70% by 2050 compared to the 2008 levels, and to reduce the total annual GHG emissions by at least 50% by 2050 compared to the 2018 levels, in the context of pursuing efforts towards phasing them out as soon as possible. This paper aims to assess the viability of alternative marine fuels like ammonia and fuel cells in the energy transition.
1.2 Research objectives
The research aims to understand the current and prospective status of the maritime industry in its energy transition using alternative fuels both from a technological and regulatory perspective. To accomplish this goal, it lays out three main research objectives: first, assess the regulatory framework and the extent to which it enables the sustainability and development of energy efficient technologies in the maritime sector; second, evaluate the technical viability of using alternative fuels like ammonia and fuel cells in propelling ships; and third, to provide insight on the potential conflicts and problems in translating regulation into practice, focusing the analysis on the case of energy technologies in the maritime industry. By fulfilling these research objectives, this project aims to contribute to the debate on technology, innovation and environment from a governance perspective and provide practical guidance on the transition from oil-based propulsion to high-efficiency and low emission alternatives for the shipping sector. In order to achieve this aim, it becomes necessary to build an interdisciplinary study which can link regulatory literature and technical literature. Also, the use of case studies and the interaction with stakeholders and industry are considered essential to provide a comprehensive understanding of the complexity involved in the transition to new energy sources in the sector.
1.3 Methodology
The research for this paper was conducted extensively over a period of 6 months from May to November 2020. It is divided into distinct stages, beginning with a literature review to understand the background and context of the research. This is followed by a technology assessment to gauge the current status, barriers, risks, and potential breakthroughs in ammonia and fuel cells. Then, an assessment of the existing ammonia projects worldwide and the one coming up in Singapore was conducted to understand the challenges ahead and the potential of using ammonia. Finally, a comparative analysis using a multi-criterion decision matrix, based on the assessment, is performed to evaluate the competing options and to support the decision making for the shipping industry and regulators. The literature review was the first thing that was done. In fact, I started the literature review in the later part of 2019 and continued with it in 2020. Through the literature review, I have a better understanding of the current research and development on ammonia and fuel cells. For the first four months, I also planned for the technology assessment. It is important to investigate if the current technologies are ready for the use of ammonia and fuel cells and to see what the challenges and risks are. Some time in March 2020, I started to access the websites for ammonia projects and realized that there is an increasing interest in the use of ammonia as a clean energy. This has led to the idea of accessing the existing and potential future projects on ammonia, which is also the crucial period before the submission of my proposal to NTUitive. The assessment on ammonia projects took me roughly three months to complete and it ends in June 20. I managed to complete the software simulation and the interview with the industry expert, Professor Subodh Malhotra, by the end of September 2020. Finally, I completed the comparative analysis by mid-October 2020 and plotted the graph to show the results of the assessment.
2. Marine Fuels and Energy Transition
2.1 Overview of marine fuels
2.2 Importance of energy transition in the maritime industry
2.3 Role of alternative marine fuels in the energy transition
3. Viability of Ammonia as a Marine Fuel
Ammonia has been proposed as a substitute marine fuel for fossil fuels due to the fact that when it undergoes combustion in an engine, it only produces nitrogen and water. Reactions which are all quite common in air already, meaning that there are no additional pollutants such as carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen or sulfur dioxide produced when compared to combusting heavy fuel oil. Moreover, it is easy to liquify at moderate pressures and very low temperatures, which means that it is possible to store a decent amount of energy when it is compared to its gases. Although ammonia has a relatively high energy density by volume when it is compared to competition such as hydrogen, it has a relatively lower energy density by volume in comparison with traditional fossil fuels. Meaning that bigger fuel tanks may be necessary. At a pressure of 3 bar, ammonia has about half the energy in each litre than diesel fuel. On the other hand, it is important to consider that the energy density by mass is much lower when it is compared to traditional fossil fuels, meaning that more storage facilities have to be incorporated aboard a vessel in order to fuel a voyage. The initial costs of introducing an ammonia fuel system onto a ship will be quite high, including developing new engines and exhaust treatment systems and creating an on-board storage facility. Indicating that a potential barrier to market entry for ammonia as a marine fuel is the high capital costs of such a project. Additionally, for normal maritime transport, the shipping distances in a day for vessels travelling across oceans like the Atlantic can be enormous, meaning that ammonia’s potential comparative energy density by volume in comparison to traditional fossil fuels may have to be higher to permit ships to travel a similar distance without refuelling.
3.1 Properties and characteristics of ammonia
The key criterion for selection of ammonia as a potential marine fuel is its ability to meet the combustion quality standards and its competitiveness compared to other fuels in terms of safety, availability, and cost. Nitrogen-based emissions, the main by-product of ammonia combustion, do not contain oxygen and are not acidic in nature like sulphuric acid formed from sulphur dioxide in fossil fuel combustion. This also makes good sense in terms of environmental benefits to the local air quality. However, the emission of NOx, which is more harmful to the environment than carbon dioxide, is the concern in ammonia combustion. Thus, as the onboard environmentally friendly method, selective catalytic reduction technology applies with the use of ammonia can provide a high level of NOx reduction (IMO, 2016). The relevance of these in relation to water and CO2e is the comparison to other alternative liquid fuels, which have the benefits in carbon neutrality. In the case of LNG, the operation of selective catalytic reduction technology with ammonia as an agent is good to keep the NOx emission at a low level. The comparison of combustion product between ammonia and major traditional fossil and alternative liquid fuels are compared in Table 2.2 below (OSK futuretech, 2016). The world focus on climate change continues to increase and receiving widespread attention. IMO has developed a three-step process of global implementation for the reduction of emissions, nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide, which has started from January 1st, 2018. IMO has committed to reduce carbon emissions across the global maritime industry by at least 50% from 2008 levels by the end of 2050. The importance of this initiative not only in reducing air pollution and contribution to human health but also clearly showed the marine industry entered into a new era of clean and environmentally friendly mode of transports, in which alternative fuels form an essential part to reach the target. And as a key requirement from this initiative, all new ocean-going ships will be equipped with the technology to analyze fuel oil sulphur content from January 1st, 2019, and this will provide a mechanism for monitoring the accuracy of fuel oil compliance (IMO, 2016).
3.2 Advantages and disadvantages of using ammonia as a marine fuel
Ammonia is starting to gain significant attention as a potential alternative marine fuel recently because of the many advantages it possesses. However, it is also important to bear in mind the disadvantages and potential challenges of using ammonia as a marine fuel. These are some factors I have discussed. Firstly, ammonia has a relatively low energy density compared to the traditional marine fuels such as heavy fuel oil or liquefied natural gas. This means that the volume of ammonia required to meet the same level of power output will be significantly larger, which is not ideal especially for ships as space on board is precious. In addition, ammonia is toxic and requires extreme care when being handled. The IGF Code, which provides the international regulations for ships using low-flashpoint fuels, clarifies that ammonia belongs to the group A1, which means the fuel is considered to pose lower risk in general during production, storage and use. This means for ships that carry ammonia as cargo, a high standard of construction and arrangements have to be adopted in line with the fire safety, minimum distance to the accommodation and service spaces, etc. and the crew must minimize any possibility of accidental spillage. Also, NOx emissions from combustion of ammonia is typically higher than that of the conventional LNG although it is still lower than heavy fuel oil. However, this means that in order to meet future and more stringent NOx emission standards, selective catalytic reduction technology, which will bring about challenges of finding space to fit on-board and higher installation and maintenance costs, may need to be installed to reduce the NOx emission down to an acceptable level. On the other hand, ammonia is one of the most promising carbon-free fuels, as it contains no carbon in its molecular structure. This means that when burned in an engine or reactor, ammonia will not produce any CO2 emissions, which is the main greenhouse gas. This will aid the maritime industry to meet the IMO’s initial strategy to reduce the total annual greenhouse gas emissions by at least 50% by 2050 compared to 2008. Furthermore, the greenhouse gas emissions from shipping, particularly carbon dioxide, have gained increasing public awareness and industries’ attention alongside with the trend of global warming and climate change. Hence, it is very likely that stricter regulations on carbon emissions will be implemented in the future and the use of ammonia in the maritime industry will be increasingly attractive in order to meet the new and more stringent requirements. On top of that, the production and transportation of ammonia is already a mature global industry. There are currently about 190 million tonnes of ammonia being produced each year and over 90% of the ammonia is transported from the production facilities to the end users, mainly in the agriculture industry, by ships. This means the logistic infrastructure required for the provision of ammonia as a marine fuel is relatively less comparing to some of the other alternative fuels, such as hydrogen. Last but not least, in terms of cost, it is predicted that ammonia will cost around 75% of the current very low sulfur fuel oil. Given that scrubber installations, which is generally considered as an acceptable means for existing ships to meet the new IMO’s low sulfur requirements starting from 2020, are also costly investments and the industry has yet to come up with a convincing solution for the safe and economic large scale bunkering of LNG, it may be the right time for the maritime industry to seriously consider the use of ammonia as a marine fuel to tackle the air pollution problems.
3.3 Current and potential applications of ammonia in the maritime sector
Such technologies, as described in this article, offer exciting opportunities to encourage and contribute to maritime decarbonization, reduce environmental impacts, and make the UK’s maritime sector cleaner, more efficient, and technologically advanced.
Fuel cells are a novel technology that offer environmental performances that are superior to those of traditional internal combustion engines. In addition, the need to find viable, renewable, and low-polluting sources of energy has never been as significant, and the importance of fuel cells as an alternative to fossil fuels has been well recognized and documented in both land-based and maritime applications. Innovations such as hydrogen-powered solid oxide fuel cells or proton exchange membrane fuel cells have shown practical application in the marine sector, and with the continued development of technology and reducing levels of pollutants in fuel cell waste streams, together with the possibility of using alternative fuel sources such as ammonia to generate hydrogen, it is important that not only today’s designers but also the next generation of engineers embrace the challenge of finding new and sustainable energy solutions to help protect the world’s oceans and strengthen the UK’s position in the marine sector.
Synergies are identified by using ammonia to generate hydrogen on demand and then using the hydrogen to fuel fuel cells that produce electrical power for a ship’s propulsion and onboard electrical load. Such an approach will be key to the development and operation of vessels as the maritime sector moves towards ever greater utilization of renewable energy sources such as wind, solar, tidal, and wave power.
There is also strong potential for ammonia to be used in the production of hydrogen, which in turn can be used as an energy source for fuel cells. Work is underway on various research and development projects looking at the efficient production and utilization of green ammonia, and research and development into the technology to safely store and then use ammonia to generate hydrogen on demand looks likely to drive further use and potential for ammonia to be used as a ‘cross over’ fuel for both today’s emissions legislation and the drive to alternative future fuels with a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions.
Ammonia is already being used in the shipping industry as a reducing agent in selective catalytic reduction (SCR) systems for nitrogen oxide abatement in emissions. SCR systems are often used in large two-stroke marine diesel engines, and by fitting an SCR system, a ship can safely use an alternative fuel like LNG, which produces less carbon dioxide and no particulate matter when compared to traditional fuels such as heavy fuel oil or marine diesel oil. This gives ammonia a head start compared to other potential future fuels, which are often cited as still requiring further research and development before being used at a commercially viable level.
4. Fuel Cells in the Marine Industry
The use of fuel cells as an alternative to conventional combustion engines is gaining popularity in the transportation sector. In the marine industry, fuel cells can be used to power vessels, providing potential air quality and climate benefits. Fuel cells are devices that convert chemical energy in a fuel into electricity through a chemical reaction with oxygen or other oxidizing agents. Fuel cells operate much like batteries, but they do not need to be recharged, as long as there is a continuous source of fuel and oxygen. Depending on the design and operating conditions, fuel cells can generate power with up to 60% efficiency. Compared to conventional combustion engines, which are generally between 30% and 40% efficient, fuel cells therefore provide an opportunity for vessels to reduce their carbon footprint. In addition, fuel cells produce no emissions aside from water if pure hydrogen is used as a fuel. This can lead to substantial reductions in nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, and particulate matter, which are harmful pollutants that can be detrimental to human health and the environment. As a result, fuel cells are seen as a promising technology to help the marine industry meet increasingly stringent emission regulations, as well as the wider challenge of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. However, it is worth noting that fuel cells are a relatively new technology and there are currently only a small number of ships in operation which use them. There are several types of fuel cells, which are mainly differentiated by the kind of electrolyte they use. Electrolyte is the medium that transports ions and electronic conduction inside the cell. This article focuses on Alkaline Fuel Cells, or AFCs, which are the most suitable for use in the marine industry out of the technologies currently available. AFCs are mainly found in the aerospace and space sectors, with very few marine applications having been developed or put into practice so far. However, there has been significant progress in recent years to increase the lifetime and reliability of AFCs, as well as reducing their size, weight, and cost. These improvements, combined with the unique advantages of AFCs such as a rapid start-up time and a low sensitivity to fuel impurities, mean that they are increasingly being seen as a viable option for providing power to marine vessels. The hybrid fuel cell technology involves combining fuel cells with other power systems, such as batteries, in order to maximize both efficiency and flexibility. For example, batteries can be used to store the electricity generated by a fuel cell and provide additional power when required, such as during peak.
4.1 Introduction to fuel cells
Fuel cells are flexible in terms of their applications; they can both produce electricity and heat or they can be used in a combined heat and power (CHP) system to provide both types of output. They have been seen as a promising energy conversion technology due to their high efficiency and low environmental impact. Unlike other combustion-based technologies such as boilers and combustion engines, fuel cells produce power through an electrochemical reaction between the fuel, which is hydrogen, and an oxidizing agent, which is usually oxygen from the air. The reaction takes place at several electrode plates in the fuel cell stack where the hydrogen atoms move to the anode as electrons, while oxygen moves to the cathode. The electrochemical reactions of hydrogen and oxygen produce a flow of direct current (DC) and a flow of heat, which can be utilized for heating, at a high electrical efficiency of around 40-50%. The direct current is then delivered to an inverter that transforms it into alternating current (AC) that can be used either within the property or exported to the grid. The technology of fuel cells has a history of over 170 years; it has been on NASA’s spacecraft and it was used in the Apollo moon mission in the 1960s due to its high power density and energy efficiency. Nowadays, fuel cells have been used in many stationary applications to provide electricity and heat. Also, the fuel cell technology has started to be adopted in the transport sector; there are productions of fuel cell buses, for example, the producer Ballard Power Systems supplied the 3 fuel cell buses to be used in public transport in London starting from March 2017. With the increasing interest in fuel cells in ships, the first fuel cell ferry has been operated in Norway since 2015, the feasibility of fuel cells in the shipping industry is being tested and studied in different research projects and real applications.
4.2 Feasibility and challenges of implementing fuel cells in the marine industry
Fuel cells can provide electricity and heat by using hydrogen as the fuel, and this electrochemical process can offer a highly efficient and environmentally friendly solution for generating power. Unlike combustion-based power generation, the fuel does not need to be burned in order to produce power, so the basic thermodynamic limitation associated with the ‘Carnot Cycle’ can be bypassed. As a result, fuel cells can achieve efficiency levels of up to 80% when converting the fuel’s chemical energy to electrical power and heat. High efficiency, reduced emissions, and low operating temperatures are the main benefits of fuel cells. When used in combination with other energy-generating devices such as gas turbines, fuel cells can increase the overall efficiency of the energy system. However, in the marine industry, implementing fuel cells is faced with a high level of technical, financial, and regulatory barriers. First and foremost, the lifespan of a fuel cell is unknown, and fuel cells are still at a relatively early stage of technological maturity compared with existing alternatives such as internal combustion engines. Research and development are still required to improve the reliability and lifespan of fuel cell systems in order to be adopted in the marine industry. Secondly, the high total costs, including high electric demand, fuel control system, and propulsion confidence. Modern fuel cell systems typically consist of the fuel cell itself, the reformer, a desulfurization unit, and a number of conventional engine control technologies. Also, the positioning and connection among those machineries are very crucial in terms of space utilization and the success of the fuel cell systems installed on the ship. From the initial design of a ship through construction right up to life on the high sea and ship recycling, there is a single main convention that was agreed upon by the International Maritime Organization (IMO), which is the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS). This convention requires flag states to ensure that ships comply with minimum safety standards in construction, equipment, and manning. As a result, the process of designing, manufacturing, testing, fitting, operating, and subsequently recycling or disposing of ships is a highly regulated discipline in the marine industry. This means obtaining permission to install fuel cell systems on a ship can be a lengthy and potentially costly process. Also, the operational and maintenance practices of the fuel cell systems must be in compliance with the classification society that the ships are involved with. For instance, the fuel cell systems must be inspected regularly, and specific protective measures must be taken to prevent the danger of fire. In addition to the regulations for fire protection designs, the ventilation and escape facilities near the fuel cell systems need to be designed in accordance with the fire protection requirements during the ship’s operation. This adds extra difficulties for the implementation of fuel cell systems as the spatial limitation for marine vessels has always been a technical yet financial barrier for the marine industry.
4.3 Case studies and examples of fuel cell applications in ships
Fuel cells have already been incorporated in different types of ships, including research vessels, ferries, and cruise ships. This section will discuss several case studies to present the latest development and innovation of fuel cells in the shipping industry. Scientists of the Helmholtz Centre for Materials and Coastal Research in Germany are developing a Research Vessel (RV) with an electric propulsion system powered by a 50 kW polymer electrolyte fuel cell. The vessel is 22.5 meters long and will be the first of its kind. With the technology of the zero-emission fuel cells, the future RV will be independent of diesel and self-sufficient in electric power. Fuel cells are also applied for inland passenger ships. The chlor-alkali electrolysis process generates hydrogen, and by using this renewable energy from the electrolysis and the oxygen from the secondary propulsion system, emission-free passenger ship operation on the lakes and rivers in Bavaria is achieved. Also, a hybrid power system consisting of a 100 kW fuel cell, a lithium polymer battery, and a power management system has been developed and demonstrated on board the passenger vessel “Raicho Nousan” in Japan. The 95-tonne ship is a hybrid of a diesel generator and a fuel cell, and the demonstration for fuel efficiency and emission reduction was conducted around winter of 2009 to summer of 2010. On the first working day under the German project HySeas, the world’s first hydrogen fuel cell ferry was fueled in Kirkwall. With the successful launch of the ferry, the project will demonstrate hydrogen in maritime applications and continue to develop a hydrogen economy within Orkney. The ferry named “Shapinsay” is 31 meters long and can carry 150 passengers and 143 tonnes of automotive vehicles. It is powered by a 200 kW fuel cell. These case studies provide insight into different applications of fuel cells in ships and their advantages compared with traditional power sources like internal combustion engines. It clearly shows that apart from the well-established automotive industry, fuel cells are leading to promising innovative projects in the marine sector as well.
5. Comparative Analysis of Ammonia and Fuel Cells
With the extremely important goals to protect the environment as the first priority, more and more attention has been drawn to environmental protection. At the same time, the marine engineering industry has been developing fast, and the need for biodegradable fuel as well as alternative fuel is in high demand. The previous chapter elaborates the significance of finding alternative fuel in the marine industry, and chapters 3 and 4 have discussed the possibility of applying ammonia and fuel cell as the ship’s fuel individually. This chapter, however, is the core of the whole report. By considering a number of different factors like economic consideration, environmental impact, policy and regulatory restrictions to each of the methods in terms of using as a ship’s fuel or energy, a comprehensive evaluation comparing ammonia and fuel cell has been illustrated. The focus of the research has been raised and the appropriateness of the selected research methodology has been justified and highlighted. Then the correlation of information discovered to the final results is going to be discussed. And that might be one of the main reasons for this chapter to be created. Also, the parameters of research are going to be identified and then the validity and the reliability of the data/calculation that have been discussed in this report is discussed. By following the previous chapter, the next chapter aims to provide insight on the long-term effectiveness and efficiency of using ammonia and fuel cell as the ship’s fuel. In the beginning, the background of the chapter is elaborated. And then, based on the introduction, different research results found in the literature are going to be discussed and compared. By doing a comprehensive analysis, some valuable conclusions can be established. For example, from the literature, the method of applying fuel cell as the ship’s energy can lead to a more environmentally friendly maritime industry. However, it is also being demonstrated from the journal papers that the initial investment of developing fuel-cell powered ship is usually high. Also, the lack of experience on retrofitting the fuel cells to different types of ships is also another disadvantage of using fuel cell. By referring to the journals and academic papers, it has provided a good comparison to the commonly used diesel and the alternative fuel ammonia in terms of the emissions in the real world. Later on, the method of calculating NOx multiplied by 0.2, CO2 added 60 and subtracted 20 in proportion, and NOx plus 56, that formed the formula for working out the emission level by using ammonia, was discussed. Also, a brief summary has shown that ammonia could be used both as an internal combustion fuel or in fuel-cell technology, which may emerge as a primary competitor to hydrogen fuel-cell and battery-electric maritime. At the moment, the synthesis of ammonia requires hydrogen, which is produced by fossil fuel, traditionally. However, more and more research has shown that water electrolysis to obtain hydrogen to react with the animal nitrogen in the ambient air has commercialized. This means that the electricity generated from renewable energy, for example solar or wind power, can be used.
5.1 Environmental impact assessment
Ammonia, which stores hydrogen chemically, is considered a potential candidate for a chemical hydrogen storage method intended for fuel cell applications. During the energy release, stored hydrogen will be produced and fed into the fuel cell. In order to store 1kg of hydrogen, approximately 17.8kg of ammonia is required. By using ammonia as the hydrogen carrier, it offers high volumetric hydrogen density compared to a low-pressure hydrogen storage tank. However, further research is in progress to find out whether ammonia can be used as the practical hydrogen carrier for fuel cell applications.
In contrast to ammonia, the electrochemical reactions within fuel cells are much cleaner. When using hydrogen as the fuel, heat and water are the only by-products. By using fuel cells, it is possible to replace all internal combustion engines. If hydrogen is used, which can be produced from water by using renewable energy resources, only water will be produced as the by-product with no environmentally damaging gases. In the production and transportation of hydrogen and reformation of fuel cells, there is little environmental impact compared to the pollution released by other energy sources. According to a study on environmental acceptability and safety of fuel cells, using fuel cells can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve air quality. The only potential environmental impact is the use of platinum as the catalyst in the fuel cell. Platinum is a rare but harmful metal to our health and the environment, and thus researchers are investigating alternative catalysts or ways to reduce the quantity required in each fuel cell. This can further improve the environmental aspects of fuel cells.
Firstly, ammonia is classified as a toxic substance and it poses a risk to human health. Ammonia is one of the key particulate-forming compounds. When laid down on soil and water, it forms nitrate and nitrite. The aerobic process of nitrification will convert ammonia to nitrate and nitrite in both water and soil. If ammonia exists in high concentration, nitrification will exhaust the oxygen within the water. This creates an anaerobic environment which is harmful to the ecosystem. Ammonia is alkaline and it has the potential to neutralize acid in the atmosphere. This can lead to acid deposition, which is harmful to the natural environment.
5.2 Economic considerations
The economic viability is important for both the present and future market of ammonia and fuel cells. A careful economic planning of ammonia-powered vessels could lead to an efficient path to the implementation of ammonia as a marine fuel on a global scale. From the success of implementing such emerging novel technology, iron-clad economic support along the way of each stage will give the industry players great confidence in building and launching fuel cell-powered vessels into the global market.
On the other hand, utilizing ammonia as marine fuel will likely result in substantial cost savings, particularly when the fuel is exempted from carbon taxes. Studies show that there is a potential savings of 10-15% on the overall operational cost for ammonia-powered shipments compared to traditional heavy fuel oil-powered counterparts. This is significant for ship owners and operators. In Singapore, one of the potential early adopter locations for ammonia as marine fuel, the Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore has announced on 24th September 2020 that the port is increasing the amount of ammonia-fueled ships in the annual maritime challenge. A grant of S$10 million has been set aside, which will help to boost the development and application of ammonia as an alternative fuel in the maritime industry. With available support from bodies such as the MPA of Singapore, it is convincing that ammonia is set to be a rising star in the marine industry in the near future.
In terms of fuel cells, the biggest economic challenge is the high cost. In 2017, the ex-factory cost for a fuel cell system was around €4700 per kilowatt of power. Also, the research organization predicts that without policy support, the time for a full payback of the capital investment for a fuel cell system in a medium-sized vessel with a power demand of 3.5 megawatts will exceed the lifetime of the system. However, due to the rapid advancements in fuel cell technology, the price is decreasing rapidly. For example, the German company adKor GmbH announced that they have developed a new type of fuel cell and successfully reduced the production cost to €1200 per kilowatt. This presents a bright future for fuel cells in the marine industry, given that the support of relevant policies becomes available for investors to cover the initial high capital cost.
The economic feasibility of ammonia and fuel cells as marine fuels is largely determined by the market price of the fuels, cost associated with implementing the fuels, and the potential earnings from carbon reduction or fuel savings. According to the research organization SINTEF, the price of ammonia in the international market is around $300-500 per ton. This makes it a competitive alternative to traditional marine fuels. As the global trade of ammonia increases, the price is expected to drop as well.
5.3 Technological readiness and infrastructure requirements
Ammonia is one of the most promising marine fuels for the future. This is due to the high energy density by volume of the liquid, the relatively simple design of internal combustion engines that can run on ammonia, and the existing infrastructure of transporting ammonia globally. However, the technology of ammonia-based fuel cells is still in the research and development stage. On the other hand, as for fuel cells, it seems that in the context of maritime, application of the fuel cells is ready and the technology for fuel cells does not need much time to develop. However, maritime fuel-cell technology is competitive but still requires more public investment and support. There are certain kinds of vessels that are powered by electricity. This technology has been used on some ferries and small ships, with a small battery used to power the vessel as it maneuvers out of a berth and the main engine starts. By contrast, a “plug in” vessel is one which has a larger battery and a shore side connection so that the battery can be charged at the berth. This technology requires that there are reliable sources of renewable energy. However, one of the most important barriers for ships to plug in is the lack of shore power supplies, which limits the suitability of the technology to certain routes. The use of fuel cells and battery electric power will remain negligible in the coming future. The technological readiness for both ammonia and fuel cells seems to be referred to as ‘in the horizon’, which requires five to ten years to develop, according to the classification of the International Maritime Organization. This might be a very exciting and challenging and at the same time an ideal moment in the development of marine nitrogen and the fuel cell technology, where researchers can develop and test many different ideas together to make marine nitrogen become more efficient and thus become a smart choice for seafarers and the shipping industry in the near future. The technological readiness for both ammonia and fuel cells seems to be referred to as ‘in the horizon’, which requires five to ten years to develop, according to the classification of the International Maritime Organization.
5.4 Policy and regulatory aspects
Government programs, incentives, and funding opportunities are welcome in facilitating the development of new infrastructure but can often have the effect of picking technology ‘winners,’ a problem that regulatory risk may compound if some technologies find investment over others. These programs can offer grants to provide initial capital to overcome obstacles to implementation, ongoing tax relief or exemptions, government-backed or low-interest loans, and even market creation and development assistance. Alcazar et al suggest that ammonia is well placed in terms of policy and regulation due to the approved and adopted IGF Code.
This comprehensive, interlocking, and many-layered regime creates regulation that impacts at every stage of a new development; from concept and funding, design and modeling, testing and proving through to operation and decommissioning. This makes navigating the acceptance of new technologies and fuels very difficult and can have the effect of stifling innovation.
Regulations and conventions cover the structural, mechanical, and electrical standards for vessels, the operation of vessels and emergency response, the atmosphere and environment of the vessel, and, crucially, the design, construction, and testing of vessels.
There is a substantial regulatory regime that extends from the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) and its Marine Environment Protection Committee to a whole series of codes, conventions, regulations, guidelines, and standards established by the IMO and others such as the International Organization for Standardization, the International Electrotechnical Commission, the International Hydrographic Organization as well as the Chemical Code recommended by the United Nations.
Regulatory aspects can often have a large impact on the feasibility of alternate fuels and new technologies, especially at sea with its inherent risk. Regulatory acceptance can be a concern with new technologies and approaches.
Ways in which policy and regulatory aspects can affect the development and implementation of ammonia and fuel cells are now analyzed so as possible advantages and disadvantages.
6. Conclusion
The research conducted has found that ammonia is a promising marine fuel, with great potential for adopting this technology in the maritime sector. For fuel cells, although they are still at an early stage of development, they can be a good choice for providing electricity on board for ships and providing high efficiency and zero-emission power. The comparison of ammonia and fuel cells suggests that they have their own merits and challenges in becoming a mature marine fuel technology. The energy transition in the maritime sector should focus on developing infrastructure to support the commercialization of alternative marine fuels and promoting the use of clean energy in port and at sea. In particular, policy makers should consider providing incentives for early adopters of ammonia and fuel cell technologies, as well as funding research and development to address the existing barriers for widespread implementation of these technologies in the future. Last but not least, continuous efforts and investment from both public and private sectors are essential to drive the energy transition forward and to make sustainable and low-emission marine transportation a reality.
6.1 Summary of findings
The comparative analysis in the previous section revealed that, in terms of energy efficiency and climatic impacts, fuel cells are the better choice, as reflected in the work of Steinbrink and Schulte, as well as Lilliestam et al. Nonetheless, the state of today’s technology in providing efficient systems and scaling ease – specifically in cargo and large ships – does not favour fuel cells. This is in stark comparison to ammonia, which has way lesser technological readiness and is in a disadvantageous monetarily as equated to fuel cells and today’s maritime Diesel technology. Also, the research has brought into picturing several regulatory and insurance-related considerations that will start to gain increased attention as we move through the energy alteration period in the maritime sector. These imply that there will be regulated or stringent measures implemented to the lives or marine environment in case if any mishap occurs. With the findings of this research, it has apparently shown that fuel cells are actually needing more technological and policy attention, especially in those managers and lawmakers in the maritime sector. Unless the situation in favour of fuel cells come true, ammonia provides itself as a good gears in the transition to go to a brighter and greener maritime sector. Even though additional future research on alternative fuel cells should be backed, nevertheless, based on today’s technology in real world, each step in the right policy and the legislation guidance should see ammonia slowly casting a bigger role and even substituting current marine fuel in the very distant future. All in all, Elizabeth Iro, the chief information officer of the World Health Organisation (WHO), seems to sum up the consequent mentality and goals to be achieved in terms of the world – especially in this research: without constant technology, there is no sustainable change and in order to reap the full health and environmental benefits of the health choices in the marine sector, we must advance towards clean sources of ship propulsion.
6.2 Implications for the energy transition in the maritime sector
As the world continues to explore a wide range of critical solutions in the energy transition journey to achieve complete and sustainable elimination of harmful greenhouse gas emissions across various industrial sectors, the pragmatic relevance of the findings in the maritime industry cannot be overstated. This is because, the maritime industry represents a huge energy market for alternative marine fuels and the embracement of new emerging, but very comprehensive technologies such as fuel cells. The maritime industry has traditionally relied on heavy oil fuels for propulsion, with the International Maritime Organization (IMO) setting the regulations to reduce the natures of harmful emissions from such fuels across the industry. However, the industry has started embracing newer and less polluting fuels such as Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG), but such fuels still have their own gas emission and supply chain challenges. Despite all the researches and debates into the potential future fuels for the maritime sector as indicated in this report, it’s obvious that a combination of different technologies will be required to ultimately remove greenhouse gases and harmful emissions from the shipping industry. Central to the realization of the ambitions of the global energy transition, including that of the maritime sector, are effective regulatory and policy guidance frameworks. This report summarily evaluated the current and potential application of ammonia for the marine fuel purpose and the feasibility of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) for river and short-sea shipping and there are plenty of opportunities in the industry to innovate and make the production, storage and the usage of cleaner fuels such as ammonia to be more efficient and cost-effective. For ammonia, there are plenty of technological gaps in terms of realization of the maximum benefit of this potential fuel on larger sea-going vessel, but the robustness of its system and the relative maturity of the technology set a strong case for its successful introduction in the industry. On the other hand, fuel cells seem to be a technology that offers a very long term solution, predominantly from the advantage of running on different types of fuels including hydrogen and the potential to flexibly meet different power requirements on board various sizes of ships. I would suggest that safety hazards and risk in the fuel production, storage and utilization process should be given serious attention by the relevant authorities, be it at the national or the international levels. Creatively, part of the risk in investing in new technologies such as fuel cells can be mitigated through pilot (test) programs funding or research grants that are made available only to the shipping companies that are running and testing these new technologies. However, much rigorous assessment and understanding about the implications of different kinds of legislation and the strategies should be explored on the basis of a comparative analysis at the institutional level, where consensus amongst various stakeholders is critical in shaping the strategic direction to achieve a sustainable and effective technology innovation in the maritime industry. Such practices would not only address the merits and weaknesses of different policies and regulatory scenarios, but also play an integral role in advising and directing the involved decision makers and authorities according to the best practices in the long run.
6.3 Recommendations for future research
The recommendations for future research are based on the identified gaps and opportunities from this study. Specifically, the following four areas are suggested for further investigation. First, to further verify the zero emission potential of fuel cells, studies should be conducted to test the performance of fuel cells in the real world. This can be done based on the data from the existing fuel cell ships, or through collaborative works with the industry partners such as ship owners and shipyards. Secondly, the long term impact of ammonia and hydrogen spills to the marine environment should be studied, so as to establish an effective and reliable emergency response procedure. In addition, the compatibility and adaptability of existing oil and gas infrastructure for the storage, transportation and bunkering of ammonia and hydrogen may require more investigations. Observing the current high demand of infrastructure for liquefied natural gas (LNG) which has been identified as one of the main alternative fuels, a systematic identification and evaluation of potential challenges and solutions should be executed to support the effective and smooth progress of ammonia and hydrogen as marine fuels in the energy transition. Overall, progress in each of these areas is expected to help the industry to overcome challenges of utilizing ammonia and fuel cells, and thus attract more interests and investments towards these new technologies in the maritime sector, leading to a successful energy transition by 2050. Work in this area is ongoing, and the findings of our research and these future recommendations have provided just the beginning in the understanding of the potential new energy methods within the maritime sector. New technology, environmental navigation and human issues provide a huge area for future research but ultimately, it may potentially provide meaningful changes within the industry.

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