Posted: June 12th, 2024

Dissertation Research Design

Qualitative Dissertation Template
The purpose of the qualitative dissertation template (revised on 08-15-2023) is to ensure that the dissertation manuscript is a quality document that conforms to the requirements of the Liberty University School of Education. This template provides information about formatting and the content contained in each section of the dissertation. It is highly advisable to “save as” a “.docx” file before working on the template. The “Headings” for APA 7th edition have been formatted correctly for this template. Use this style guide for additional subheadings. When you have written your additional subheadings, click the appropriate heading “APA H1, H2, etc.” under the “Styles” pane (under the “Home” tab) to generate the correct APA 7th edition heading.
Formatting
 The margins for all chapters of the dissertation will be 1 inch on all sides.
 All text should be in Times New Roman, 12-point font.
 Text within the body of the manuscript will be left-justified.
 Double-spacing will be employed throughout the manuscript.
 There will be one space after the punctuation at the end of sentences.
 Page numbers should all be Arabic numerals, Times New Roman 12 font, and placed in the upper right-hand corner (with the page number on the first page suppressed).
 All manuscripts should follow the latest version of the APA style manual, which is APA 7th Edition or later.

The following is the Qualitative Dissertation Template with a description of each section.

Discussion Thread: Research Design

Discussion Prompt

The research design section of chapter three provides a concise rationale for the appropriateness of the research method (qualitative), the research design (e.g., phenomenology or case study), and the design type (e.g. hermeneutic, transcendental, single instrument, collective, etc.).

Additionally, the section should include a brief history of the research design type. Write a well-crafted response discussing your rationale for your selected method, design, and design type and a brief history of the design type. References are not required, but in-text citations are required to support your assertions and relevant information. See the Dissertation Template for additional guidance on this section.

Use the purpose statement template in the Qualitative Dissertation Template and write a well-crafted and clear purpose statement.

See the Dissertation Template for additional guidance on this section.

IMPORTANT: See the Dissertation Template (ATTACHED) for additional guidance on this section.

Research Topic:

Qualitative Research Design:

Impact of Under-representation of African American Male Special Education Teachers on the Retention of African American Male Educators.

Qualitative Research Design: Phenomenology Study

Research Design Type: Hermeneutic

The student will post one thread of 350-400 words
Assignment will be checked for A/I use and plagiarism.

PLEASE USE THE QUALITATIVE DISSERTATION TEMPLATE AS A GUIDE.

ATTACHMENTS:

Qualitative Dissertation Template

THIS IS AN EXAMPLE OF THE TITLE PAGE: A GENERIC QUALITATIVE STUDY

by
Student’s Full Legal Name
Liberty University

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy

Liberty University
Graduation Year
 

THIS IS AN EXAMPLE OF THE TITLE PAGE: A GENERIC QUALITATIVE STUDY

by Student’s Full Legal Name

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy

Liberty University, Lynchburg, VA
Graduation Year

APPROVED BY:

Name and degree, Committee Chair

(For example: Jane Doe, Ed.D., Committee Chair)

Name and degree, Committee Member
 
Abstract
The abstract summarizes the contents of the manuscript, starting with the purpose (required template follows), the methodology, the central research question, and the results. The first sentence is not indented and is the purpose statement. The purpose of this _________ (phenomenological, case) study (was/will be) to _______________ (understand/describe/develop/discover) the _____________ (central phenomenon of the study) for _____________ (the participants) at __________ (the site). The theory guiding this study is Smith’s theory on theories (do not cite the year here) as it (explain the relationship between the theory and your focus of inquiry). Next, state the Central Research Question. Finally, describe the methodology, including the study design, sample, setting, and data collection and analysis approach. For completed studies, a brief summary of the results should conclude the abstract. The abstract will not be longer than one page and should be written as one double-spaced paragraph. The abstract is written in the future tense as a section until the study is completed: then, it is converted to past tense. For proposals, the abstract cannot be a full page because the final abstract will include the results of the study and must be limited to one page. There will also be no extraneous information in the abstract not specifically delineated above, as there is no room on a single page for such additional information. Thus, no citations are used. The word “Abstract” should be in bold title case, a Level 1 heading, and centered.
Keywords: This is a list of 4-7 words, separated by commas, central to your study that will aid search engines in pointing other scholars to your study. For example:
Keywords: retention, campus recreation, higher education
 
Copyright Page (Optional)
While optional, we recommend declaring copyright to preserve your claim to the knowledge generated in this study. Use one of the two following formats:
Copyright 2023, Jane Student
or
© 2023, Jane Student
 
Dedication (Optional)
The dedication page is a page in which the candidate dedicates the manuscript. This page is optional. Some examples are as follows:
I dedicate this dissertation to God, my creator, from whom all good things flow!
I dedicate this to my high school teacher, who inspired me to pursue Literature and English.
To my parents, who gave me moral lessons on discipline from an earlier age and helped pay for my studies.
To my supervisor, who was the guiding light every step of the way as I researched for this dissertation.
To the memory of my sister Jane, who always believed in my abilities to earn a doctorate.
To my children, John and Anna, may you pursue knowledge throughout your lives.

 
Acknowledgments (Optional)
The acknowledgments page provides the opportunity for the candidate to acknowledge individuals who influenced the writing and completion of the dissertation. This page is optional.
Some common people to acknowledge are your committee chair, your committee members, your peers, your editors, your professors, etc.

Table of Contents

The Table of Contents lists the chapters and subsections of the manuscript along with their page numbers. The Table of Contents should include the Abstract, Copyright Page, Dedication, Acknowledgements, List of Tables, List of Figures, CHAPTER TITLES (in all caps), Level 1 headings, Level 2 headings, References, and Appendices. These should be left justified. The subsections included should only be APA Level 1 and Level 2 headings within the manuscript. Level 1 headings should be indented one-half inch, and Level 2 headings should be indented one inch. Chapter titles are not considered Level 1 headings. Entries should be double-spaced. DO NOT disrupt or change the formatting of the table of contents, as it will correctly format as you add to your dissertation. For this reason, all draft submissions to your dissertation chair should be the entire dissertation, with a note in the email to ask for a review of specific parts as appropriate.
Abstract 3
Copyright Page (Optional) 4
Dedication (Optional) 5
Acknowledgments (Optional) 6
List of Tables 13
List of Figures 14
List of Abbreviations 15
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 16
Overview 16
Background 16
Historical Context 16
Social Context 17
Theoretical Context 17
Problem Statement 18
Purpose Statement 19
Significance of the Study 20
Theoretical 20
Empirical 20
Practical 20
Research Questions 20
Central Research Question 21
Sub-Question One 21
Sub-Question Two 21
Sub-Question Three 22
Definitions 22
Summary 22
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 24
Overview 24
Theoretical Framework 24
Related Literature 25
Convince Your Reader 26
Critique the Literature 26
Synthesis is not Simply Listing the Literature 27
Summarizing Synthesis 28
Be Selective 28
Be Smart 28
Summary 28
CHAPTER THREE: METHODS 30
Overview 30
Research Design 30
Research Questions 31
Central Research Question 31
Sub-Question One 31
Sub-Question Two 31
Sub-Question Three 31
Setting and Participants 31
Site (or Setting) 31
Participants 32
Recruitment Plan 32
Researcher’s Positionality 33
Interpretive Framework 34
Philosophical Assumptions 34
Ontological Assumption 34
Epistemological Assumption 35
Axiological Assumption 35
Researcher’s Role 36
Procedures 36
Data Collection Plan 36
Individual Interviews 37
Document Analysis 40
Focus Groups 40
Observations 41
Physical Artifacts 42
Journal Prompts 42
Letter-Writing 42
Surveys/Questionnaires 43
Other Qualitative Approaches 43
Data Analysis 44
Trustworthiness 45
Credibility 46
Transferability 46
Dependability 46
Confirmability 46
Ethical Considerations 47
Permissions 47
Other Participant Protections 47
Summary 48
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS 49
Overview 49
Participants 49
Allen 49
Betty 49
Charles 49
Etc. 49
Results 50
Theme 1 51
Sub-Theme 1 52
Sub-Theme 2 52
Teacher Passion for Helping Students 52
Meeting Students on Their Level (example sub-theme) 52
Marginalized Student Discipline (example sub-theme) 52
Outlier Data and Findings 53
Outlier Finding #1 53
Outlier Finding #2, etc. 53
Research Question Responses 53
Central Research Question 53
Sub-Question One 54
Sub-Question Two 54
Sub-Question Three 54
Summary 54
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION 55
Overview 55
Discussion 55
Summary of Thematic Findings 55
Interpretation of Findings 55
Interpretation #1 56
Interpretation #2 56
Interpretation # etc. 56
Implications for Policy or Practice 57
Implications for Policy 57
Implications for Practice 57
Empirical and Theoretical Implications 57
Empirical Implications 58
Theoretical Implications 58
Limitations and Delimitations 58
Limitations 59
Delimitations 59
Recommendations for Future Research 59
Conclusion 59
References 61
Appendix A 64
Appendix B 65
Appendix C 70

List of Tables
The List of Tables cites the tables and the corresponding pages of each table. This list enables the reader to locate the tables in the manuscript easily. The title of this page should be a Level 1 heading, centered, 1 inch from the top of the page. Entries should be double-spaced.
An example is provided below.

Table 1. Open-Ended Interview Questions 70
Table 2. Open-Ended Focus Group Questions 73
Table 3. Participant Demographics 85
Table 4. Theme Development 94

 
List of Figures
The List of Figures cites the figures and the corresponding pages of each figure. This list enables the reader to locate the figures in the manuscript easily. The title of this page should be a Level 1 heading, centered, 1 inch from the top of the page. Entries should be double-spaced. An example is provided below.
Figure 1. Oceanside Christian Academy by Race……………………………………………………………..110
Figure 2. Oceanside Christian Academy Household Income………………………………………………115
Figure 3. Conestoga Christian Academy by Race……………………………………………………………..120
Figure 4. Conestoga Christian Academy Household Income………………………………………………135
 
List of Abbreviations
The title of this page should be a Level 1 heading, centered, 1 inch from the top of the page. Entries should be double-spaced and in alphabetical order. Doctoral candidates should take all precautions to avoid creating new acronyms not already in use in the field. Also, abbreviations or acronyms that are common in the United States need not be included in this list, such as USA (United States of America), state names, common government organizations such as DoD, etc.; however, erring on the side of caution is fine for this section. Examples are provided below.
Association of Christian Schools International (ACSI)
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES)
 
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Overview
The purpose of Chapter One is to frame the study. It should create reader interest, provide a contextual background for the problem, articulate the research problem and the purpose of the study, identify the significance of the research, introduce the research questions, and finally, offer a relevant definition for the reader. Chapter One may vary in length from 10 to 15 pages for the final dissertation. For this overview, begin with a hook that convinces the reader that the research is important. Then overview the contents of the chapter in a single paragraph written in the present tense.
Background
The Background section contains a summary of the most relevant literature and provides the historical (e.g., how the problem has evolved), social (e.g., society, community, education system, areas, etc., affected by the problem), and theoretical (e.g., the theoretical concepts that have developed the concept under examination and the principles underpinning the research). The introductory paragraph of this section should be short and forecast the three contexts. Use APA Level 2 headings for each of the contexts.
Historical Context
This section sets the historical background for your study by briefly exploring how history has unfolded chronologically, forecasting the conditions for, or the existence of, the problem that motivates the study. For example, this section might include a brief history of higher education, a brief history of access to education, or the historical success of a particular cross-section of society in education. Specifically, if you were exploring the experiences of Black men in higher education settings, you might review the relatively recent access to higher education for the broader Black population and the struggles this population has faced since the 1960s. This section does not include information intended for the next two sections. There are no restrictions on the recency of citations used in this section, but a comprehensive review might include some older and some newer references.
Social Context
The Social Context section addresses the relevant social context to help frame your study. Although there may be some minimal overlap with the Historical Context, this section is more specific to the social aspects related to this study and will lean towards a much more contemporary orientation than the historical setting. Questions that may be asked or addressed in this section may include, but are not limited to: Who else is affected by the problem? Who may benefit from or use the proposed research? Given the Black men in higher education example, you might include information on the significant efforts to increase Black men’s participation in higher education and to offer some evidence of social reasons that the men may not be attending college in a representative manner. This section need not be overly lengthy but needs to be comprehensive in addressing the social context for the reader. You should consider the participant, their community (e.g., family, institution, or teachers/students), and society. There are no restrictions on the recency of citations used in this section; however, most literature in this section should be no more than five years old.
Theoretical Context
The Theoretical Context section will include a brief review (background) of seminal research, along with theoretical, conceptual, and scholarly work done in your topic area. This section is not a theoretical review of the theory you will use for your theoretical framework. Explain your theoretical framework in Chapter Two. Questions that may be asked or addressed in this section may include, but are not limited to: What research has been done to investigate or address the problem? What new information might the current research add to the body of existing literature regarding the topic? How will the proposed research extend or refine the existing knowledge in the area under study? There may be seminal or older literature used in this section, but efforts to draw on current literature should be obvious. To continue the example of Black men in higher education, you might highlight the comprehensive and recent work of Shaun Harper in this section. This section need not be overly lengthy but needs to be comprehensive in framing the theoretical context for the reader. Reserve extensive elaboration of the study’s theoretical or conceptual framework for Chapter Two. If no scholar has ever used the theory you will use for exploring your topic, then you will definitely not discuss your theory in this section. You should look to the theories that underpin your subject matter and how they have been used to contribute to the body of literature on your topic. There are no restrictions on the recency of citations used in this section, but a maturing or robust scholarly area will lean on mostly newer references, while newer or less mature scholarly areas might merely rely on the nascent body of literature available.
Problem Statement
This section begins with a statement of the problem. You should state: “The problem is . . .” A problem is never that what you want to research is not present in the literature. A problem can generally be defined as an issue within the literature, theory, or practice that suggests the need for your study (Creswell & Poth, 2018). This need for the study is often referred to as a gap in the literature or adding to the body of knowledge. An example of a simple problem statement is, “The problem is that African American students are underrepresented in doctoral programs. Retention rates among African American doctoral students in the United States have fallen below other ethnic groups (Hiberclens, 2022). Underrepresented minority doctoral students experience significant external influences that affect retention while attending graduate schools (Gibbs, 2021). Researchers have identified a critical need for more African African doctoral students within all academic disciplines (Carr. 2019; Hollowell, 2021; Michealson, 2018; Sanders, 2022).” The example identifies the general problem, the specific problem, the focus of the research, and the population sample. The problem statement draws from the background section; it includes three to five current citations (i.e., five years or less since publication) to show that the proposed research is empirically significant and relevant to the field. It should be stated clearly in one to two focused paragraphs and should convince the reader why the particular issue or problem your study is investigating needs to be explored empirically.
Purpose Statement
The purpose statement should follow the problem statement and clearly and succinctly state the focus and intentions of the proposed research. Use the following template from Creswell and Poth (2018, p. 132): The purpose of this _________ (phenomenological, case) study is to _______________ (understand? describe? develop? discover?) the _____________ (central phenomenon of the study) for _____________ (the participants) at __________ (the site). At this stage in the research, ___________ (central phenomenon of the study) will be generally defined as ________________ (a general definition of the central concept). The theory guiding this study is _________. The purpose statement foreshadows the research question(s), and the statement must be consistent throughout the dissertation. All preceding writing within the manuscript should funnel into the problem and purpose statements, and all succeeding aspects of the manuscript should align with, support, and further expand upon the problem and purpose statements.
Significance of the Study
The significance of the study section contains a description of the contributions that the study makes to the knowledge base or discipline from a theoretical, empirical, and practical perspective. References are critical here to lend credence to the significance of your study, and all assertions in this section need to be supported by the empirical literature.
Theoretical
The theoretical significance of the study articulates how the study will/does contribute to the theoretical underpinnings of the problem and is articulated in one well-crafted paragraph.
Empirical
The empirical significance of the study is how the study relates to other studies similar to yours or how undertaking the particular methodological approach will add to the literature and is also articulated in one well-crafted paragraph.
Practical
The practical significance of the study articulates in one well-crafted paragraph why the knowledge generated from the study may be significant to the location, organization, general population, or sample being studied (e.g., How might this study be used for the participants, the site, or on a wider scale to affect change to help a group of people or an organization as a whole?).
Research Questions
A central research question is a mirror image of your purpose statement, but in the form of a question, and sub-research questions are derived from your theoretical framework to help you narrow and focus the scope of your study. The proposed research questions should be introduced with a brief lead-in section of at least three sentences. A well-written research question (RQ) is feasible, clear, significant, and ethical such that no explanation is required for the reader to understand the purpose of each question. In qualitative studies, research questions are often philosophical or pragmatic in nature and ask about meaning, process, perceptions, or behavior. Qualitative RQs are usually broad and would make poor interview questions because they are intended to address the research problem. Individual interview and focus group questions get more and more specific the deeper into the study the scholar goes. Identify at least three research questions or a central research question and at least two sub-questions. If a central RQ is used, the subordinate questions are called sub-questions (SQ). Use the following formatting in your dissertation manuscript. Note how the central RQ is a broad question involving the phenomenon, site, and participants, while the SQs address specific segments of the Central RQ.
Central Research Question
What are the experiences of K-12 teachers who mentor underserved populations? A phenomenology will typically have a central RQ and two to three SQs to explore the phenomenon. In fact, most qualitative studies will follow this recipe. However, it is perfectly acceptable to have three research questions and no SQs. Your research questions should be derived from your theoretical framework. You will have to discuss the theoretical implications of your study in Chapter Five; therefore, you must collect data that speaks to your theoretical framework. Your research questions are your way of doing this.
Sub-Question One
What are the experiences of K-12 teachers who mentor English Language Learners?
Sub-Question Two
What are the experiences of K-12 teachers who mentor lower socioeconomic status students?
Sub-Question Three
What are the experiences of K-12 teachers who mentor handicapped students? To review, you can see how each of the sub-questions addresses a single construct of the central research question.
Definitions
Terms pertinent to the study should be listed and defined in the final section of Chapter One. All definitions in this section also need to be supported by the literature with the appropriate citation. Words that are commonly known need not be defined in this section. As an exception, if you have to develop a definition that is not found in the literature, you may briefly create a definition, but it still should draw on empirical literature that you will cite. Include terms that use abbreviations. The definitions should be alphabetized. An example is provided below.
1. Attitude – Attitude is a psychological tendency that involves evaluating a particular object with some degree of favor or disfavor (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993).
2. Interest – The combination of emotion and personal valuation of a task resulting in a desire for various levels of enjoyment (Ainley & Ainley, 2011).
3. Student veteran – any student who is a current or former member of the active duty military, the National Guard, or Reserves regardless of deployment status, combat experience, or legal status as a veteran (Vacchi, 2012, p. 17).
4. Etc.…
Summary
Provide a chapter summary here. The Summary includes a succinct restatement of the problem and purpose of the study and provides a strong conclusion to the chapter without consuming much more than a single page.
 
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Overview
Chapter Two typically is the longest chapter of the dissertation proposal and is written in the present tense to talk about the current chapter. The minimum length must be 30 full pages, including tables, graphs, and figures, but most are longer to address the relevant literature comprehensively. This chapter provides an empirical context for the study via the literature as well as the need for the study, as evidenced by the gap in the literature. Chapter Two is comprised of four sections with Level One headers: (a) the Overview, (b) a Theoretical and/or Conceptual Framework section, (c) a Related Literature section, and (d) a Summary. Level 2 and Level 3 subheadings are numerous in the Related Literature section and may also be necessary for the Framework section. Typically, 100 to 200 articles are used in the construction of this chapter, with even more used in the total construction of Chapters One through Three. However, a minimum of 100 peer-reviewed articles (e.g., journals, academic books, etc.) are required. The Overview must clearly and concisely describe the contents and organization of the chapter in the present tense and should not be longer than one paragraph.
Theoretical Framework
Situating your study and focus of inquiry within an established theoretical framework helps to organize and guide the study. This section should provide the reader with a direct connection to the conceptual or theoretical framework that will effectively guide the study and allow the findings to be situated within a greater context. According to Maxwell (2012),
The point is not to summarize what has already been done in the field. Instead, it is to ground your proposed study in the relevant previous work, and to give the reader a clear sense of your theoretical approach to the phenomena that you propose to study. (p. 123)
Start by describing the theory, including origination and major theorist. Next, discuss how the theory has advanced or informed the literature on your topic. Conclude by articulating how your study utilizes the theory (i.e., research questions, data collection, and reporting results) and how it may potentially advance or extend the theory.
Examples of theoretical frameworks include Astin’s theory of involvement (1984), Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory, Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory (1993), Knowles’ (1980) adult learning theory, Maslow’s (1954) hierarchy of needs, etc. Note that when identifying a theory in APA style, the name of the theory is not capitalized. Grounded theory studies will have neither a theoretical nor a conceptual framework, and this section can be omitted for those studies.
Some studies might only use a conceptual framework, while others might use both a theoretical and conceptual framework. In rare exceptions, some studies might use two theories for the framework, but this will need to be approved by the committee chair as an exception. An effective Framework section discusses the theoretical or conceptual framework in less than two pages, while a dissertation that uses both a theoretical and conceptual framework ideally describes both in less than three pages. The main purpose of this chapter is not to discuss your guiding framework at great length: it is to situate your study within the extant scholarly literature.
Related Literature
The purpose of this section is to provide a synthesis of the existing knowledge on this topic, not simply a study-by-study summary, and to link this existing knowledge to the proposed study. Remember that this section frames your argument for the significance of your study. It communicates what has been examined on the topic, what has not been examined, how the understanding of the topic is still developing, and how the study can fill the gap or further understanding in the field. It is important to remember that Chapter Two is not a library, that is, a listing of facts or summaries of relevant research, but rather an integrated and critical argument. The references used in this section should be current, meaning use the most updated version of the work of seminal authors. Thus, there is no hard and fast rule about how much of your literature should be new and how much can be used from more than five years ago, merely that the literature review represents a current snapshot of the extant literature. Also, remember to use primary sources, not those “as cited in” another source. Other dissertations should be used sparingly because they are not peer-reviewed. Subsequent major sections in the Related Literature section should be arranged as APA Level 2 headers, as in the example below.
Convince Your Reader
Remember that your literature review provides the context for your dissertation and demonstrates why your topic is important and relevant. Consider also that the literature should be described as you would articulate the literature, and as such, every effort should be made to avoid direct quotations unless it is the identical way you would say something. The best dissertation proposals have no quotations in the first three chapters.
Critique the Literature
Are there disagreeing prevailing perspectives in the literature? Is there universal agreement? Do not simply list out the literature that you find. That is, make sure your literature review logically informs the need to conduct your study. Does a published study make little sense logically or empirically? This ambiguity is important to highlight for the reader – just because something is published does not automatically make it of value or correct. Some literature simply becomes outdated as it gets older or a topic area matures, which is either important to point out to the reader or to withhold these references from the literature review.
Synthesis is not Simply Listing the Literature
This paragraph offers an artificial but effective example of synthesis. Many graduate students struggle between merely listing literature and creating a cogent argument with an effective synthesis in literature reviews for graduate-level writing (Authority1, 2017; Scholar1, 2016). Citing multiple authors who articulate the same or similar perspectives demonstrates agreement in the literature. Despite continuing efforts to elevate the level of synthesis in graduate writing (Scholar1, 2016; Scholar2, 2020), the field sees little progress in the synthesis skills of social science graduate students (Authority2, 2019). Authority1 (2017) asserts that synthesis is not merely a listing of the literature as offered by some less-reputable graduate institutions that have recently closed due to poor employment rates of their graduates (e.g., Sad State University, Big Fail For-profit University, and Biased Private College). Still, listing the literature has a place in the development of writing skills, albeit at the secondary school level (Authority1, 2017; Authority2, 2019; Scholar1, 2016), to explore a wide cross-section of the literature. Further, Scholar2 (2020) offers that synthesis skills should begin in upper-level classes in high school. Counter voices insist that because most high school graduates do not complete a four-year college degree (NCES, 2021) that expending precious classroom time on teaching synthesis in high school is not a good investment (Lesser K12 Association of America, 2016). While many scholars agree that synthesis should be taught beginning in the later high school years (e.g., Authority1, 2017; Authority2, 2019; Scholar2, 2018), a more viable solution may be to focus on literature review synthesis skills in introductory graduate-level writing courses (Scholar1, 2016; Scholar2, 2018; Council of Graduate Education Experts, 2021) to ensure, in particular, that more doctoral students can more effectively synthesize the literature in their dissertation proposals.
Summarizing Synthesis
You see in the above passage that there were points of disagreement and agreement, and the reader can tell what the field has had for a discussion in the literature about the synthesis topic. This is called creating dialogue within the literature. Not only is this easier to read than a simple listing of the literature, but it tells the story of the literature better, makes your argument more effective, and engages the reader in your literature discourse, helping to shape the gap in the literature that your study will partially fill.
Be Selective
Avoid the temptation to include all the literature you have read. Be selective and use the most relevant articles that build your argument for the need for your study. Keep in mind that the best literature reviews do not use words such as, “Therefore, the gap in the literature is that we do not know how to train graduate students to synthesize the literature.” Rather, the gap will be so plainly evident that the reader will identify that your study serves to contribute to narrowing the gap without you articulating that in Chapter Two.
Be Smart
While seeking to use primarily peer-reviewed scholarly articles, only use magazines, the Internet, or dissertation material if they are the only representations of the knowledge you need to discuss. If you are in an emerging topic area, this may be more common than well-established topic areas, e.g., the student veteran literature is still in its infancy, and much of the generated knowledge is within dissertations, while teacher experiences in K-12 settings is a mature topic area and should not include many references other than peer-reviewed material.
Summary
This section should provide a focused summary of what is currently known, what is not known, and how your proposed study can specifically address gaps in the existing literature. It should also review how/why the theoretical framework will be used in your study. After your literature review, write a statement that summarizes or highlights the most relevant literature and conclusions that lead to your proposed study. Be sure that you identify that your study has empirical (i.e., narrows a gap in the literature) and practical value (i.e., contributes to a potentially practical solution to a problem or concern in the professional field that improves professional practice).
 
CHAPTER THREE: METHODS
Overview
The purpose of Chapter Three is to present the research design, procedures, and data analysis plans for your study. That is, it provides the reader with the details of what will occur during the execution of your research. Descriptions in this chapter should be comprehensive and in sufficient detail to permit the replication of the study. The Overview begins with a restatement of the purpose of the study, is one paragraph in length, written in the present tense, and clearly and concisely describes the contents and organization of the chapter. Chapter Three sections and subsections are listed and explained below.
Research Design
In the Research Design section for qualitative studies, articulation of why a qualitative study is appropriate opens the section for the reader. Next, the research design (e.g., phenomenology, case study) should be identified with a rationale for why the general design is appropriate. Finally, the specific type of design is described with an explanation for why the specific design was selected, except for grounded theory studies. Additionally, the specific research design type should be fully defined with a brief history of the research design type. For example, if selecting a phenomenological study, be sure to identify what type (i.e., hermeneutic or transcendental) and cite the appropriate scholars. If conducting a case study (Stake, 1995), identify whether it is a single instrumental, collective, or intrinsic case study. Alternatively, Yin (2018) offers four types of case studies holistic single or multiple-case designs and embedded single or multiple-case designs. Here, the grounded theory scholar would provide a rationale for the seminal scholar for their chosen approach to grounded theory. The purpose and the specific research design should align with the research questions as well as the procedures described. Throughout this section, refer to primary qualitative research texts for the proper design description and use them to support your rationales. For example, Creswell & Poth (2018) is not a primary text, but the work of Moustakas, van Manen, Stake, Yin, Strauss & Corbin, Corbin & Strauss, Charmaz, Clandinin & Connelly, Chase, Riessman, Atkinson, and Madison are primary texts for various qualitative methods.
Research Questions
List the research questions verbatim from Chapter One.
Central Research Question
What are the experiences of K-12 teachers who mentor underserved populations?
Sub-Question One
What are the experiences of K-12 teachers who mentor English Language Learners?
Sub-Question Two
What are the experiences of K-12 teachers who mentor lower socioeconomic status students?
Sub-Question Three
What are the experiences of K-12 teachers who mentor handicapped students?
Setting and Participants
The purpose of this section is twofold. First, the purpose is to paint a site or setting picture for the reader of your dissertation in sufficient detail to visualize the setting without consuming too much time and space in the manuscript. Second, the purpose of this section is to describe the profile of your participants by articulating the criteria for participation in your study.
Site (or Setting)
In this section, the setting (or the site) of the study should be described, including elements such as geographic location, school system, leadership structure, a course, etc. Just as you should have a rationale for selecting your participants for a qualitative study, it is also important to provide a rationale for your site selection: Convenience alone is not sufficient. Only important features which have a bearing on your study should be included. The following questions should be addressed in detail: Why was this setting (site) chosen for this project? What does the organization look like regarding leadership, organizational structure, etc.? Pseudonyms for both individuals and institutions should be used in this section as well; however, it is incorrect to use a pseudonym as follows: West Bend Academy. You will articulate in your Ethical Considerations subsection of the Trustworthiness section that all names and locations are pseudonyms to preserve the confidentiality of the participants and sites and, as such, noting that a name is a pseudonym is unnecessary.
Participants
Demographic information (age, ethnicity, gender, etc.) should be described in narrative form to create a visual of who the participants in the study are. For example, participants in this study are teachers of core content areas with more than three years of experience as teachers. An articulation of the specific demographics of the participants is reserved for Chapter Four, and as such, no specifics are needed in this section to preserve brevity. If using a questionnaire to identify participants, be sure not to consider this as a data collection method. The number of participants will most often range from 12-15 or higher, and no fewer than 10 participants will be accepted without written approval from the School of Education Administrative Chair of Doctoral Programs and Research. While less restrictive, candidates should have intentional reasons for including more than 15 participants in their study.
Recruitment Plan
In this section, the sample pool, the sample size, and the type of sample should be clearly explained, and each decision should be supported by research citations. The sample pool is the qualitative equivalent of the Quantitative N term for the total population available from which to solicit a sample. For example, if the study seeks to explore the experiences of second-grade teachers in a school district, the total number of second-grade teachers employed at all schools in the district would be the sample pool. The sample size is the actual number of participants in the study, which for Liberty University has a minimal target of 10 and generally not more than 15, but during the proposal, this should be expressed as a range of between 12 and 15 participants or until saturation is reached. Occasional exceptions to the number of participants are possible depending on the method and type of study with the Chair and Qualitative Director’s approval. You will identify the type of sample (i.e., convenience, snowball, purposive, maximum variation, criterion sampling, or a combination of types) and offer a rationale for your type, given the nature of the study. Information about informed consent or assent should also be discussed here.
Researcher’s Positionality
This section provides an opportunity for you to articulate your motivation for conducting the study, that is, your research paradigm or interpretive framework (i.e., post-positivism, social constructivism, pragmatism, or transformative frameworks), and your three philosophical assumptions (i.e., ontological, epistemological, axiological) that will guide the study. Keep in mind that qualitative research is written in the first-person voice rather than the third-person voice. Many times, post-positivism and social constructivism are frequently used with phenomenological and grounded theory studies, whereas pragmatism is the research paradigm that is used when conducting a case study (Creswell & Poth, 2018). Transformative frameworks include the many critical theories, action research, and feminist theory (Creswell & Poth, 2018).
Interpretive Framework
The interpretive framework, or research paradigm, can be confusing for scholars new to scholarly research. Essentially, the interpretive framework identifies the lens through which you will conduct your study. Although you may change depending on what you study, or your desired approach to a study, your interpretive framework will be the same throughout any single study. There is a full spectrum of interpretive frameworks beginning with positivism; however, positivism is reserved for quantitative research and cannot be employed for qualitative studies (Creswell & Poth, 2018). Beginning with the most conservative qualitative frameworks and moving to the most radical, the paradigms are (a) post-positivism; (b) social constructivism; (c) pragmatism; (d) postmodernism; (e) disability theory; (f) feminist theories; (g) critical theories, etc. (Creswell & Poth, 2018). Most qualitative research for most Liberty University dissertations will situate on the more conservative end of this spectrum and tends to cluster around social constructivism, but in the end, you must simply articulate your chosen paradigm.
Philosophical Assumptions
The philosophical assumptions can also be confusing for emerging scholars, but they need not be. Unlike the research paradigms or interpretive frameworks, philosophical assumptions tend to be consistent throughout a scholar’s life because these center on values and belief systems within individuals. Articulating your positionality on the philosophical assumptions spectra aids the reader in understanding the lens through which you view the world and, as such, how you approach your research. There are three philosophical assumptions that will need to be addressed in your dissertation, ontological, epistemological, and axiological.
Ontological Assumption
The ontological assumption involves your beliefs on the nature of reality. Is there one universal reality, or are there multiple realities? At Liberty University, it is hard to get too far away from God’s truth as the singular reality, and that the human understanding of this truth is imperfect, which may explain mistaken perceptions by some that multiple realities exist. In the field, you will find that there are people who believe that multiple realities are the only possible explanation of the world. This stark contrast of views requires that scholars inform their readers of their ontological views for readers to have a better understanding of the approaches used during research.
Epistemological Assumption
The epistemological assumption addresses what the researcher counts as knowledge, how knowledge claims are justified, and, more specifically, what is the relationship between what is being researched and the researcher (Creswell & Poth, 2018). In quantitative research, the goal is to create a completely unbiased study in which the researcher is not relevant to the process or the outcomes. Thus, in a statistical study, knowledge is regarded as facts derived from the source of the knowledge – which is a particularly objectivist view of knowledge. Qualitative research is more subjective, and, as such, knowledge is likely derived from the subjective experiences of a wide array of people and not necessarily those who are experts.
Axiological Assumption
The axiological assumption describes the extent to which researcher values are known and brought into a study. Again, for quantitative research, the values of researchers ideally are neither known nor influence the study. Conversely, it is important in qualitative studies not only to convey your values, or positionality, concerning the context and setting of the research to your reader, but also to be aware of those values and biases to effectively bracket those to best seek the truth of the information you gather as data and in composing your final report. For example, a veteran who is doing a study on other veterans would include the fact that they are a veteran and are unapologetic about their belief that veterans are successful in most things rather than broken and in need of help. Alternatively, a non-veteran researching student veterans might offer their positionality that while not a veteran, they are from a long line of military veterans and are effusive in their support of the veteran community. While this information constitutes bias, it is important for the reader to understand these nuances to read the final dissertation most effectively. This is an appropriate sub-section to identify the biblical worldview or religious orientation of the researcher.
Researcher’s Role
In this section, you must clearly and thoroughly explain your role as the human instrument in the study. You must be straightforward about your relationship with the participants (you should not have any authority over them), your role in the setting or research site, and any bias or assumptions you bring to the study that may influence how you view the data or conduct your analysis. The role of the researcher must also be articulated considering the chosen design, and the implications of this role on the data collection and data analysis procedures must be addressed.
Procedures
In the Procedures section, the steps used to conduct the study are outlined to a reasonable enough extent that the study could be replicated from these descriptions. This explanation includes how you will obtain the necessary site permissions, secure Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval, and solicit participants. Then, give an overview of the data collection and data analysis plans and include an explanation of how the study achieves triangulation.
Data Collection Plan
A critical aspect of qualitative inquiry is the rigorous application of the variety of data collection strategies or approaches available to the researcher. There should be several subsections detailing at least three different sources of evidence in the data collection plan; however, the only required data collection approach at Liberty University is individual interviews. Keep in mind that if you conduct a phenomenology, then your study might include two rounds of individual interview questions. See your chair or a Qualitative Methodologist.
Other sources of evidence may include, but are not limited to, observations (i.e., participant, direct); document analysis (e.g., archival records; journals, letters, etc.); physical artifacts (e.g., photographs, etc.); focus group interviews; and journal prompts. Discuss the data collection approach in the order in which data will be collected and explain why you have chosen this sequence. These data collection procedures should follow the recommendations of established qualitative researchers in the field (e.g., Erlandson et al., 1993; Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Merriam, 1988; Miles & Huberman, 1994; Patton, 2014, etc.). After discussing the data collection approach, discuss the associated data analysis approach you will use for that data collection method.
Individual Interviews
At the outset of each of the subsections for the individual data collection strategies, you should identify the data collection strategy, define it according to the empirical literature, explain the data collection strategy in layman’s terms, and justify its appropriateness for your study. Discuss any logistics (when/where/how/with whom will data be collected, recording, etc.) and explicate which of your research questions might be answered by this data collection strategy. It is important to demonstrate that interview questions are generated from your research questions, which is easily done by annotating which RQs or SQs are addressed after each question. Remember that you will need to break the ice with your participants to help establish rapport for a good interview, and an effective way to achieve this is using what Marshall & Rossman (2012) refer to as a grand tour question, which invites the participant to take you on their journey of whatever aspect of the social dynamic you inquire about with the question that also sets a tone and direction for subsequent directions. One of the expected side effects of the grand tour question is that it gets the participant comfortable with sharing their story with you and likely opens them up to deeper and more valuable responses to subsequent questions. The following is an example of a semi-structured interview protocol for exploring teacher experiences. The interview questions begin with a grand tour question, and this protocol should include enough questions to cover your topic thoroughly. Include only open-ended questions (do not use yes/no questions). Present your semi-structured interview protocol in the below formatting. The interview question instrument is listed as a Table. Place the Table name in the List of Tables and Appendix.
Table 1
Individual Interview Questions
1. Please describe your educational background and career through your current position (this is a good grand tour question). CRQ
2. Describe your challenges when working with English Language Learners (ELL) in your classes. SQ1
3. Describe successful practices you use when working with ELL students in your classes. SQ1
4. What professional development experiences have you had that prepared you to work with ELL students as a teacher? SQ1
5. What else would you like to add to our discussion of your experiences with ELL students that we haven’t discussed? SQ1
6. Describe your challenges when working with lower socioeconomic status (SES) students in your classes. SQ2
7. Describe successful practices you use when working with lower SES students in your classes. SQ2
8. What professional development experiences have you had that prepared you to work with lower SES students as a teacher? SQ2
9. What else would you like to add to our discussion of your experiences with lower SES students that we haven’t discussed? SQ2
10. Describe your challenges when working with handicapped students in your classes. SQ3
11. Describe successful practices you use when working with handicapped students in your classes. SQ3
12. What professional development experiences have you had that prepared you to work with handicapped students as a teacher? SQ3
13. What else would you like to add to our discussion of your experiences with handicapped students that we haven’t discussed? SQ3
The questions should have a modest explanation for their inclusion in your interview protocol, which may include a question’s relationship to the problem, purpose, theoretical framework, conceptual framework, or any applicable research questions, the latter of which is most common. An exhaustive rationale for each question supported by empirical literature is not required. After developing your questions, discuss in your procedures that you will get experts in the field to review your questions. Of course, these are typically your committee members and need not be anyone else. Piloting the interview with a small sample outside of your study to ensure clarity of questions and wording is not necessary but certainly permissible. In qualitative research, we want to avoid the time and energy spent with unnecessary pilot studies, and we do not want to waste viable data. With reviewed and approved interview questions, you can proximate the value of a pilot study by taking extra care to review the conduct of your first interview critically and seeking on-the-spot feedback from your first participant. When minor changes are made to interview questions that do not change the substance of an interview, the credibility of the interview protocol is sufficient to include the first participant in the study. Any pilot of your interview protocols must wait until after you receive IRB approval to collect data.
Document Analysis
Document analysis may be applied to a variety of sources, including but not limited to legal documents, records, meeting minutes, letters, diaries, etc. Every effort should be made to incorporate primary rather than secondary sources. Identify and describe the specific documents you will collect and explain your rationale for why each type of document contributes to your data collection strategy. The substance of the document analysis must be on par with all other data sources. For example, when researching parent involvement in schools, it is insufficient to simply use sign-in rosters of attendance at PTA meetings as evidence of involvement. For many studies, it can be difficult to generate documents that are on par with other forms of data collection.
Focus Groups
Focus groups provide an opportunity for the researcher to interact with multiple participants at the same time while encouraging dialogue amongst participants about the area being researched. Focus groups are especially useful for exploring complex, multi-layered concepts from the perspectives of the participants. Focus groups are an excellent means to create triangulation using varied sources of evidence in your study when needing to conserve time rather than conducting follow-up interviews of all participants or when collective responses are as good as, or superior to, individual interview evidence. Focus group questions must be developed and reported using the same format as interview questions (see Interview Question subsection above) and should avoid re-asking questions already asked during individual interviews. Additionally, researchers should keep in mind that when using a focus group as a source of triangulation for individual interviews, that the focus group protocol may need to be modified after the study is underway to follow up most effectively on initial data findings of individual interviews.
List focus group questions here, including their contribution to research questions (as you did with the interview questions), and include a brief rationale as you did with the interview questions. An exhaustive rationale for each question supported by empirical literature is not required.
Table 2
Focus Group Questions
1. How did you . . .
Observations
When conducting observations, develop and include your observation protocol in the appendices and be sure to address both descriptive and reflective field notes. Use or modify an example from a qualitative research text rather than creating your own observation protocol from scratch. When describing your data collection approach for observations, be sure to discuss whether observations will be scheduled or unscheduled and whether you will be a participant or non-participant observer while also identifying the frequency and duration of observations.
Physical Artifacts
Physical artifacts are a less common source of evidence for most qualitative studies and should be complemented with in vivo evidence from participants. Common physical artifacts might be policies, professional development programs, laws, archival records, and even photographs, drawings, or other physical media used to represent the perspectives of participants.
Journal Prompts
Journal prompts are an excellent complement to interviews and can enrich participant perspectives because there is typically much more time for participants to draft, edit, and submit responses to the prompts. When crafting journal prompts, consider the amount of time for drafting and finalizing responses when choosing the number of prompts to provide each participant and the timeline to complete journal prompts. It may take 10 to 15 minutes to complete each prompt, so limiting the number of prompts to between four and six is recommended. Many participants will not be able to drop everything in their lives to complete journal prompts, so giving them two weeks is a good compromise between urgency and fairness.
Letter-Writing
Letter-writing is an excellent alternative to journal prompts and can enrich participant perspectives because there is typically much more time for participants to draft, edit, and submit letters. When considering the purpose of letter-writing, many times, the prompt might be about what the participant wishes they knew earlier in their lives or educational journey or is sometimes referred to as a letter to the participant’s younger self. This kind of data collection is typically limited to one instance per participant and should be substantive. For example, “as a woman administrator in higher education, what would you tell your younger self to be better prepared for your experiences as a professional administrator.” Many participants will not be able to drop everything in their lives to complete letters, so giving them two weeks is a good compromise between urgency and fairness.
Surveys/Questionnaires
Taking care when considering the purpose of a survey or questionnaire is essential to eliciting meaningful data from participants. In most cases, surveys or questionnaires will focus on qualitative data and are what are called open-response surveys; however, there are some exceptions. Case studies may involve limited quantitative data (e.g., Likert-type) as, by definition, a case study can be a mixed-methods approach to generating knowledge (Yin, 2018). Advanced statistics should be avoided in case studies that fall under the broader category of qualitative dissertations. If using a published survey or questionnaire, be sure to gain permission to use it and explain here how the survey was developed and how validity and reliability were established. If generating your own, you need to address face and content validity and describe piloting procedures. Simply collecting demographic information from participants is neither considered a survey nor sufficient to serve as one of the three required sources of evidence for a qualitative study at Liberty University.
List survey questions here, including their contribution to research questions (as you did with the interview questions), and include a brief rationale as you did with the survey questions.
Table 3
Surveys/Questionnaires
1. What is your perception of teacher burnout?
Other Qualitative Approaches
There are other, less common approaches to qualitative data collection in the methods literature. Numerous factors should be considered when using any of these other methods, such as the rigor of the method, the appropriateness of the method, and its effectiveness as a means of triangulation. An example is participant journaling, which can be an ineffective way to elicit quality data for several reasons, such as overloading the participants with time demands and additional responsibilities. Also, if participants neglect their journaling, then one of the three required sources of evidence may fail, causing problems for the progress of your dissertation. Care should be taken when considering the use of journaling – in most cases, journal prompts are a faster and more effective way to elicit participant data. All other qualitative approaches should be approved by your dissertation chair and the Qualitative Research Director well before the final proposal defense to allow you time to identify other sources of evidence in the event that the Director does not approve this approach for your study.
Data Analysis
All data analysis procedures will be delineated in this section. In this section, the data analysis procedures should be identified, and a concise rationale for the type of analysis should be provided. Be sure that your analysis procedures are aligned with your research design. Be sure to use primary resources for your data analysis approach to guide the development of this section. While secondary sources, such as course textbooks like Creswell and Poth (2018), provide good overviews of different research designs and analysis procedures, they typically lack the detailed procedural information needed to write Chapter Three. You need to provide enough detail that someone could replicate your data analysis by following the data analysis procedures outlined in this section. (You may want to refer back to your primary design texts of Moustakas, van Manen, Yin, or Stake for these researchers’ analysis procedures). Further, if your study involves multiple forms of data collection to achieve triangulation, you need to discuss how you will analyze each set of data and then synthesize findings across all of your sets of data. Some form of coding primary data and associated researcher memos is typically used to organize data and to identify recurring themes for many qualitative studies. Additionally, if you plan to use a Qualitative Data Analysis Software (QDAS) such as NVivo, Atlas.TI, or MaxQDA, discuss this in the appropriate data analysis sections as well. Please use caution here: QDAS software is not an easy button and will not analyze your data for you! QDAS packages are merely data management tools, and you will still have to code your data manually. Novice scholars should not use QDAS because, in most cases, it will only add time to the data analysis process because QDAS packages are typically used to keep very large data sets organized, and your dissertation typically will not rise to an unmanageable level of manual data management. Those who falsely believe that QDAS can automatically code and analyze data generally end up with a garbage in garbage out analysis and simply end up with word frequencies that do not rise to the level of rigorous qualitative data analysis. If you do use QDAS, be sure to think of it only as a data management tool, not a data analysis tool.
Trustworthiness
Lincoln and Guba (1985) conceived of the foundational concepts and terms that establish the trustworthiness of a study, specifically credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. These are merely terms that are synonyms for comparable quantitative terms, such as internal and external validity, reliability, and objectivity. While the qualitative researcher can go to great lengths to attempt to create the conditions to achieve all four of these trustworthiness criteria, in the end, it is the reader who makes the final subjective determination of the extent to which the qualitative researcher achieved trustworthiness in their study. An example of a high-quality version of the Trustworthiness section can be found in Appendix B.
Credibility
Credibility is confidence in the truth of a study’s findings or the extent to which the findings accurately describe reality (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). It is the feasibility of the account that a researcher arrives at that determines its acceptability to others (Bryman, 2016). Techniques for establishing credibility include (a) prolonged engagement; (b) persistent observation; (c) triangulation; (d) peer debriefing; (e) negative case analysis; (f) referential adequacy; and (g) member-checking (Cohen & Crabtree, 2006).
Transferability
Transferability shows that the findings may have applicability in other contexts (Lincoln & Guba, 1985), which is largely achieved through the use of thick descriptions when describing research findings (Geertz, 2008). Transferability refers to the ability for findings from the context of your study to be applied to another context or within the same context at another time (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). It is important to acknowledge that the researcher can only create the conditions for transferability but cannot assure transferability: this judgment can only be made by the reader of the research.
Dependability
Dependability shows that the findings are consistent and could be repeated (Lincoln & Guba, 1985), which can be demonstrated through an effective description of the procedures undertaken for the study. Dependability is accomplished through an inquiry audit, which at Liberty University occurs with a thorough review of the process and the products of the research by the dissertation committee and the Qualitative Research Methodologist.
Confirmability
Confirmability is a degree of neutrality or the extent to which the findings of a study are shaped by the respondents and not researcher bias, motivation, or interest (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Techniques for establishing confirmability include (a) confirmability audits; (b) audit trails; (c) triangulation; and (d) reflexivity.
Ethical Considerations
Any ethical considerations or implications of the research should be discussed along with all permissions required for the research.
Permissions
In this section, all necessary permissions are explained and documented as appropriate. If applicable, explain how you will obtain site and/or participant access, along with consent or assent letters. Then, reference the appendix in which your IRB approval letter resides and site permissions for your study. During the proposal process, it is important to begin informal conversations with the gatekeepers of possible research sites to rule out unwelcoming sites and to identify feasible sites. You will need your proposed site’s permission to submit your IRB application. However, some sites have their own IRB or may require conditional approval from Liberty’s IRB before they will grant site approval. Thus, you may have to wait to get formal approval to use this study site until after you complete IRB, but at least you are not trying to use a site that will not allow you to conduct your study there.
Other Participant Protections
This section will explain other ethical considerations, including how you will inform participants of the voluntary nature of the study and their right to withdraw from the study at any time. You will also tell how you will ensure the confidentiality of the site and participants (e.g., use of site and participant pseudonyms). Furthermore, you will discuss how both physical and electronic data will be secured and how long it will be stored. These security measures might include data storage (e.g., locked filing cabinets and password protection for electronic files). If you do not plan to add to the data collected for the dissertation, the data should be destroyed after three years (per LU IRB), but if the scholar feels that the study may be extended in the future, data should not be destroyed. Risks and benefits to the participants should be discussed along with an evaluation of the possible risks and mitigation factors. Any other potential issues unique to the study that might arise and how they will be addressed should also be included in this section.
Summary
Provide a chapter summary. The Summary provides a succinct restatement of the alignment of design choice, data collection, and data analysis strategies.
 
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
Overview
The purpose of Chapter Four is to present the results of your data analysis as findings and is written in the present tense to talk about the current chapter. This chapter is reserved for findings specifically; methodological information should be discussed in Chapter Three, and an interpretation and discussion of results should be reserved for Chapter Five. The Overview should begin with a brief restatement of the study’s purpose, followed by a clear and concise overview of the chapter content. The chapter will include participant descriptions; the data, in the form of narrative themes, charts, graphs, tables, or models, presented by theme; outlier data; and research question responses as level one headers before concluding the chapter.
Participants
While the desired sample should be described in Chapter Three, Chapter Four begins with participant descriptions in tabular form and elaboration on the extent to which you were successful in soliciting participants according to your plan from Chapter Three. Then, include a rich description or portrait of each individual who participated in the study (using pseudonyms). Pseudonyms should be realistic and reflective of the culture of your participants, but not in such a way that their anonymity could be compromised. You can organize these participant descriptions using Level 2 APA headings.
Allen
Betty
Charles
Etc.
Pseudonyms will be used to protect the confidentiality of participants and locations; however, annotating that you are using pseudonyms is not desirable for the reader to seamlessly read your report. Pseudonyms should be realistic and reflective of the culture of your participants, but not in such a way that their anonymity could be compromised. Below is an example of a participant table:
Table 4
Teacher Participants
Teacher Participant Years Taught Highest Degree Earned Content Area Grade Level
Amy 10 Masters Social Studies 8th
Brandon 7 Education Specialist English Language Arts 8th
Charlotte 14 Education Specialist Special Education – All Content Areas 6th – 8th

Results
This section must be organized thematically using APA Level 2 headings for themes and Level 3 headings for sub-themes. Theme development must be supported using appropriate narrative and raw data, especially using in vivo participant quotes to demonstrate evidence of themes or sub-themes from the data. Do not simply list a series of participant quotes detached from any narrative. The candidate has options on how to present and organize this section; for example, a table identifying all themes and sub-themes at the beginning of this section could be appropriate, or a table at the beginning of each Thematic section could list that theme and the associated sub-themes, or no tables at all is a possibility. Consult with your chair on their preference.
 
Table 5
Themes & Subthemes
Theme Subthemes
1 1 2 3 4
2 1 2 3 4
3 1 2 3 4

Theme 1
Theme 1 is a placeholder name for this template, and you should replace these placeholders with the real names of your themes and sub-themes. Briefly summarize the essence of the theme, offer an in vivo quote, and state the prevalence of the theme throughout the data (e.g., “Twelve of fifteen participants mentioned . . . ” or “Elements of theme appeared across all three sources of data for most participants.”) and then move on to the first sub-theme. Then, mention the prevalence of the sub-themes (e.g., “The codes one, two, and three were clustered to form the sub-theme of four. In total, these codes appeared 437 times in participant interview transcripts, journal prompts, and the documents collected.”). You will have a Level 2 header for each of your study’s themes, and the associated sub-themes will be listed as Level 3 headers immediately following the theme. An example is offered below the formatting example for Theme 1. While some themes and sub-themes can be as brief as the examples below, some may be longer. It is considered bad form to have many long block quotes with little to no literature to balance an understanding of the theme or sub-theme being described; always seek a balance between the explication of the theme and the in vivo quote used to exemplify the theme. The themes developed and discussed in this section should be supported by all of your data collection sources. In other words, if you used individual interviews, journal prompts, and focus group interviews, quotes or excerpts from each of those sources should be mentioned in the results section. Likewise, aim to balance the representation of all your participants.
Sub-Theme 1
Briefly summarize the essence of the sub-theme, offer an in vivo quote, and then move on to the next sub-theme.
Sub-Theme 2
Briefly summarize the essence of the sub-theme, offer an in vivo quote, and then move on to the next sub-theme or theme, as appropriate.
Teacher Passion for Helping Students (example theme)

Teachers have a clear passion for helping all students, particularly those who show an interest in learning, but it is clear that teachers have a heightened passion when working with marginalized students. When speaking about her passion for helping marginalized students, Jane posed the question, “Who else is going to help them? It is our obligation as teachers to help these students as much as possible.”
Meeting Students on Their Level (example sub-theme)
Teachers agreed that the most successful approach to communicating difficult concepts to students in wheelchairs is to kneel or crouch to have their heads at a similar level to those of the children. Michael quipped, “I’m really tall, and talking from my height down to a level that is only three to four feet off the floor can seem intimidating to kids. They open up to learning better when I kneel beside them.”
Marginalized Student Discipline (example sub-theme)
Most teachers agreed that going easy on marginalized students when discipline is justified sends the wrong message. Joan asserted, “They learn that they can get away with things, which turns into worse habits. It’s better to discipline them just like any other student when appropriate.”
Outlier Data and Findings
Unexpected findings and themes that do not align with specific research questions or themes are also presented. Limit this section to major unaligned findings that warrant the attention of your reader. In the unlikely event that your study has no major outlying findings, this section can be omitted.
Outlier Finding #1
One student in the study was six feet tall in the fifth grade and presented an option for teachers to speak with this student while standing up. This posture can be beneficial when developing the maturity of adolescents as it can be a way to speak with them, as adults tend to speak with each other standing up. John offered, “I have bad knees, so when I need to talk with Andre, it is a bit nicer because we can stand and speak because he is almost as tall as I am!” Despite this observation, it is uncommon for many fifth graders to be able to stand and speak with comfort to an adult teacher.
Outlier Finding #2, etc.
Research Question Responses
This section offers the reader concise answers to your research questions to prime them for the discussion that will follow in Chapter Five. This section must supply short and direct narrative answers to each of the research questions using primarily the themes developed in the previous section. Clearly show the themes that answered each research question. Select participant quotes that are appropriate to support the responses to the research questions.
Central Research Question
What are the experiences of K-12 teachers who mentor underserved populations? The participants’ perspective is that working with underserved populations is both rewarding and frustrating for the same reasons serving other students is frustrating: the best students are sometimes neglected to deal with other student discipline situations. Mary said, “the distractions of the troublemakers take away so much time from the good students, that I wonder how much more successful the good students could be without me being taken away from their learning so much to discipline other students.”
Sub-Question One
What are the experiences of K-12 teachers who mentor English Language Learners? Provide a brief answer to the sub-question with an in vivo participant quotation.
Sub-Question Two
What are the experiences of K-12 teachers who mentor lower socioeconomic status students? Provide a brief answer to the sub-question with an in vivo participant quotation.
Sub-Question Three
What are the experiences of K-12 teachers who mentor handicapped students? Provide a brief answer to the sub-question with an in vivo participant quotation.
Summary
The Summary is a strong and succinct conclusion paragraph that reviews the themes and highlights a significant finding or two. Do not rewrite the entire chapter in this conclusion.
 
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION
Overview
Begin the Overview section with a brief restatement of the purpose of the study. The Overview must clearly and concisely describe the contents and organization of the chapter in the present tense. Chapter Five is unique in that you are expected to use your interpretations and ideas to refine the findings of your study and interpret them for the reader. Chapter Five consists of five discussion subsections: (a) interpretation of findings, (b) implications for policy and practice, (c) theoretical and methodological implications, (d) limitations and delimitations, and (e) recommendations for future research.
Discussion
The purpose of this section is to discuss the study’s findings in light of the developed themes. Typically, findings are discussed in such a way as to highlight the voice of the researcher, who is now an expert in this topic. Still, supporting the interpretations of findings with empirical and theoretical sources along with hard evidence from the study is required. The discussion section has five major subsections including (a) Interpretation of Findings; (b) Implications for Policy or Practice; (c) Theoretical and Empirical Implications; (d) Limitations and Delimitations; and (e) Recommendations for Future Research.
Summary of Thematic Findings
This section should give a brief summary of the thematic findings, as discussed in Chapter Four. The purpose of this activity is to provide a summary to orient the reader ahead of the significant interpretations of the candidate.
Interpretation of Findings
This section begins with a brief overview followed by a series of interpretations deemed significant by the candidate if a hermeneutical phenomenology framework or case study method was conducted. This section is NOT a restatement of the themes, nor is it an interpretation of the themes explained in Chapter Four. Rather, this section is the candidate’s interpretation of findings from their research.
If a transcendental phenomenology was used, disregard the Interpretation of Findings and instead write your critical discussion under the Discussion heading. The Discussion section should be a critical discussion of your findings. This critical discussion should include your thoughts, comments, and perspective on your research findings. Again, this section is NOT a restatement of the themes. Rather, this section is the candidate’s discussion of findings from their research.
Interpretation #1
Use your own terms in place of the interpretation headings, as these are merely for showing the organization of the dissertation template. Interpretations may not be a mere regurgitation of the themes from Chapter Four, but some overlap may be possible. This is your opportunity to make connections between the phenomenon, the participants, the setting, the literature, and the theories to generate new knowledge about this subject. Emerge as a scholar and give us your interpretations!
Interpretation #2
As there will certainly be multiple interpretations, each interpretation is discussed with its own APA Level 3 header.
Interpretation # etc.
Despite having multiple important interpretations, you will not want your list to be interminable. You may have to be selective but do not omit any important interpretations of the findings. As such, these interpretations need not be lengthy, only complete.
Implications for Policy or Practice
Depending on the topic, it may be appropriate to include specific recommendations for various stakeholders, such as policymakers, administrators, teachers, parents, etc. This brief introduction should forecast the main subsections: Implications for Policy and Implications for Practice. Depending on the study, there may be no implications for policy or no implications for practice, however unlikely, but it is more likely there will be both, albeit there may not be a similar number of each.
Implications for Policy
These implications should be limited to setting specific policies, laws, regulations, or possible implications for higher-level organizations or entities, such as school district, state, or federal policies.
Implications for Practice
These implications should be reasonable for the population, organization, or site of the study or might be expanded to a potentially transferable context. Keep in mind to hedge as you cannot be the determiner of the transferability of your study; that judgment is reserved for your readers. Hedging is when you are not definitive about the applicability of an implication for practice outside of the context of the study. For example, “While it is clear that communication with students by being on their level is an important finding for this school, it may also be effective for all school settings and students.” Use of the words “may also be” are the specific words that are used to hedge, as opposed to saying, “these findings apply to all school settings,” which is not hedging.
Empirical and Theoretical Implications
The purpose of this section is to address the theoretical and empirical implications of the study. You will be comparing and contrasting the found themes with the theory and literature in Chapter Two. Thus, this section should be substantial and one of the longer sections in Chapter Five. Depending on how many implications you articulate here will determine if you use a subheading for each subtopic here. How does your study confirm or corroborate previous research? How does your study diverge from or extend previous research? What novel contribution does your study add to the field? Did anything emerge regarding the use of your method and design that would be interesting for the reader to know or offers implications for future use of the method? How does your study extend or shed new light on the theory informing the topic? How does your study diverge from the extant theory? The utilization of the key citations from the Theoretical Framework and Related Literature in Chapter Two is required. Be open to the possibility that there may be more than simply your theoretical framework at play here – particularly if it becomes clear that you could have used a more appropriate theoretical framework or some of your methodological practice was not effective.
Empirical Implications
The empirical implications concern how your research study aligns with the literature in the literature review. This is very important to examine your findings in relation to the literature review.
Theoretical Implications
The theoretical implication is to be aligned with your findings to the theory that was utilized. A table of theoretical implications may be needed.
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations are potential weaknesses of the study that cannot be controlled. They may be related to world or weather events, the sample (e.g., gender, age, ethnicity, geographical location, etc.), technology failures, participants who refused to participate, etc. Delimitations are purposeful decisions the researcher makes to limit or define the boundaries of the study (e.g., only including participants over the age of 18, selecting an ethnographic over a phenomenological study, choosing a hermeneutic phenomenology over a transcendental phenomenology, etc.). Describe the rationale behind decisions made to limit or define the scope and focus of the study. Again, depending on the number of limitations and delimitations you articulate will determine if you use further subheadings in this section.
Limitations
Articulate your limitations in this subsection. Remember these are potential weaknesses of your study and things that are/were beyond your control in the conduct of your study.
Delimitations
Articulate your delimitations in this subsection. Remember these are limitations you chose to place on your study to limit the scope of the study. Many times, this can be descriptors of what you’ve done to limit your participant pool, site, and other parameters of the study.
Recommendations for Future Research
In consideration of the study’s findings, limitations, and delimitations placed on the study, provide multiple recommendations and directions for future research. Include an argument for what topics and populations should be studied, along with specific types of designs that should be employed. It is common to recommend other methods to explore your topic, other populations to be studied similarly, etc. This is a time to be creative with your suggestions for the field to continue and expand upon your research.
Conclusion
Provide a summary of the entire study rather than a simple summary of Chapter Five. This final summary can be a difficult undertaking for those who struggle with concise writing. Limit this conclusion to less than one page. From your Implications section, reiterate what you consider to be the one or two most important takeaways from the results of your research.
 
References
All the references cited within the text should be listed following the most recent edition of the Publication Manual of APA, which at the time of the publication of this template, is APA7. The reference title should be capitalized, bold, and centered.
Ainley, M., & Ainley, J. (2011). Student engagement with science in early adolescence: The contribution of enjoyment to students’ continuing interest in learning about science. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 36(1), 4-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2010.08.001.
Astin, A. (1984). Student involvement: A developmental theory for higher education. Journal of College Student Personnel, 12, 297-308.
Atkinson, M. (2016). Ethnography (pp. 71-83). Routledge.
Bandura, A. (1986). The explanatory and predictive scope of self-efficacy theory. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 4(3), 359-373.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1993). The ecology of cognitive development: Research models and fugitive findings. In R. H. Wozniak & K. W. Fischer (Eds.), Development in context: Acting and thinking in specific environments, 3, 46.
Bryman, A. (2016). Social research methods. Oxford University Press.
Charmaz, K. (2014). Constructing grounded theory. Sage.
Chase, S. (2005). Narrative inquiry. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed., pp. 651-680). Sage.
Clandinin, D. J., & Connelly, F. M. (1989). Narrative and story in practice and research. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED309681
Cohen, D., & Crabtree, B. (2006). Qualitative research guidelines project. https://sswm.info/sites/default/files/reference_attachments/COHEN%202006%20Semistructured%20Interview.pdf.
Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2014). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. Sage.
Creswell, J., & Poth, C. (2018) Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Sage.
Eagly, A., & Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers.
Erlandson, D., Harris, E., Skipper, B., & Allen, S. (1993). Doing naturalistic inquiry: A guide to methods. Sage.
Geertz, C. (2008). Thick description: Toward an interpretive theory of culture (pp. 41-51). Routledge.
Knowles, M. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy (Revised and updated.). Cambridge Adult Education.
Lincoln, Y., & Guba, E. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Sage.
Madison, S. (2006). The dialogic performative in critical ethnography. Text and Performance Quarterly, 26(4), 320-324.
Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. (2015). Designing qualitative research (6th ed.). Sage.
Maxwell J. (2012). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach. Sage publications.
Maslow, A. (1954). The instinctoid nature of basic needs. Journal of Personality, 22, 326-347.
Merriam, S. (2002). Introduction to qualitative research. Qualitative Research in Practice: Examples for Discussion and Analysis, 1(1), 1-17.
Miles, M., & Huberman, A. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook. Sage.
Moustakas, C. (1994). Phenomenological research methods. Sage.
Patton, M. (2014). Qualitative evaluation and research methods: Integrating theory and practice. Sage Publications.
Polkinghorne, D. (1995). Narrative configuration in qualitative analysis. In J. A. Hatch & R. Wisniewski (Eds.), Life history and narrative (pp. 5-23). Falmer.
Riessman, C. K. (2008). Narrative methods for the human sciences. Sage.
Rossman, G., & Rallis, S. (2016). An introduction to qualitative research: Learning in the field. Sage.
Stake, R. (1995). The art of case study research. Sage.
Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. M. (1997). Grounded theory in practice. Sage.
Vacchi, D. (2012). Considering student veterans on the twenty-first-century college campus. About Campus, 17(2), 15-21.
Vacchi, D., & Berger, J. (2014). Student veterans in higher education: a direction for research and theory. In M. Paulsen (Ed.), Higher education handbook of theory and research, vol. XXIX. Springer Science+ Business Media.
van Manen, M. (2016). Phenomenology of practice: Meaning-giving methods in phenomenological research and writing. Routledge.
Yin, R. (2018). Case study research and applications: Design and methods. Sage publications.

Appendix A
Appendix Title
The appendices must include a variety of artifacts. The appendix must include the IRB application (replace with the approval letter for the complete dissertation), informed consent/assent forms, surveys/questionnaires/instruments, protocols (interviews or observations), sample transcripts of interviews, theoretical memos, and other documents used to establish an audit trail. Any identifying or personal information (names, schools, districts, phone numbers, email addresses) should be eliminated. If numerous types of artifacts are included as appendices, each type should have a section labeled as Appendix A, Appendix B, etc. Each appendix must be addressed in the narrative text. The appendix title should be capitalized, bold, and centered.
 
Appendix B
Trustworthiness Section Example
This appendix offers an example of a comprehensive trustworthiness section. This example may be slightly beyond the expectations of what most doctoral candidates will achieve, particularly during the proposal phase of the dissertation process. This section is fabricated from a faculty member’s dissertation and adapted to meet the Liberty School of Education Qualitative Template. This section was done well after the study was completed and after the faculty member had advised over 30 candidates on their trustworthiness sections.
Trustworthiness
Lincoln and Guba (1985) responded to criticism from positivists about a perceived lack of rigor, reliability, and objectivity by conceptualizing parallel terms for these characteristics of qualitative research, specifically, credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. This section describes the measures taken to assure a rigorous study through the lens prescribed by Lincoln and Guba. While these terms are, in many cases, synonyms for terms used in quantitative scholarship, these have different meanings and implications for the quality and rigor of a qualitative study.
Credibility
Credibility refers to the extent to which the study’s findings accurately describe reality, at least according to the perceptions of participants, as a proximation of the truth of the phenomenon in question (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). I achieved credibility in three ways: (a) triangulation, (b) peer debriefing, and (c) member-checking.

Triangulation
In this study, I undertook triangulation of qualitative methods, data collection methods, sources, and theories to explore the stories told by student veterans Bout their success. The methods included aspects of life history (Polkinghorne, 1995) narrative inquiry (Chase, 2005) a hybrid method created for this study in which I did not seek the entire life history of student veterans but their influences from their military service on their experiences in college and I took up the role of narrator for the veterans’ stories as they may not be prepared to tell their own stories (Chase, 2005). Data collection methods triangulation was achieved through using individual interviews of veterans, their success influencers, and focus groups of veterans. Source triangulation was achieved by using the veterans and their staff or faculty success influencer’s perspectives on the phenomenon of student veteran success. Theory triangulation was achieved through the use of Astin’s (1980) I-E-O theory and Vacchi’s conceptual model of student veteran support (Vacchi & Berger, 2014) as both organizing frameworks and analysis frameworks.
Peer Debriefing
A technique I frequently used during this study was peer debriefing (Marshall & Rossman, 2015) which allowed me to discuss emergent findings with colleagues to ensure my analyses were grounded in the data. Ideally, I would have had military veteran scholars triangulate results during this study through peer debriefing, but I did not have ready access to those kinds of peers. Still, there are some data available in the modest literature that provided some corroboration for my findings, in addition to peers in my academic program who are familiar enough with my research to provide important perspectives that helped elucidate my study’s findings.
Member Checking
Having undergone many of the same experiences and transitions myself that student veterans experience before and during college gave me an insider’s connection with my participants (Rossman & Rallis, 2016). This insider’s, or emic perspective, which Rossman and Rallis (2016) suggest can be an advantage for researchers, allowed me to reflect back the meaning of the participants’ words during the interviews; this immediate member checking (Lincoln & Guba, 1985) was important because, during the interviews, I confirmed some concepts by asking questions from various perspectives to ensure I captured the essence of an experience. After transcription, I clarified specific elements of data with the participants, thus ensuring I accurately reflected their stories of success, which can also serve as member checking (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Still, I was wary of falling into the trap of believing that I automatically understood what participants meant and forced myself to explain some concepts in participants’ words that I believed I already understood. For further member checking, I provided willing participants with a copy of their transcript, which they reviewed for accuracy. I also provided a copy of what I believed to be the main points of each participant’s interview that participants also checked for accuracy.
Transferability
Transferability shows that the findings may have applicability in other contexts (Lincoln & Guba, 1985), which is largely achieved through the use of thick descriptions when describing research findings (Geertz, 1973). The descriptions I used to describe the experiences of student veterans at one public and one private research university painted a robust picture of what success in college meant for my participants. The alignment of participant testimony across these two institutions was so similar as to suggest that the specific context of a college setting may not be the primary factor in what contributes to student veteran success. While a single institution of each type does not necessarily facilitate the transferability of findings, the literature offers virtually no insights into factors influencing veteran degree attainment so that this study may offer an exploratory first step toward an improved understanding of student veteran success.
Dependability
Dependability shows that the findings are consistent and could be repeated (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Descriptions of my procedures, particularly the adaptation of the study once I discovered the significance of the success influencer, were comprehensive enough that this study could be replicated. Specifically, descriptions of the method I developed to undertake this study are straightforward and supported by the literature, in addition to being fairly simple enough to repeat for student veterans, but this study could be replicated for any population. My committee thoroughly reviewed these procedures and deemed them sufficient to demonstrate mastery of the method as I designed it.
Confirmability
Confirmability is a degree of neutrality or the extent to which the findings of a study are shaped by the respondents and not researcher bias, motivation, or interest (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). I employed three techniques to ensure the confirmability of this study. First, I created a detailed audit trail through which my procedures, raw data, analyzed data, and the final report could be transparently tracked if necessary. Second, I employed the numerous aspects of triangulation described above, and finally, I was reflexive in the undertaking of this study. Reflexivity is an attitude of attending systematically to the context of knowledge construction, especially to the effect of the researcher, at every step of the research process (Cohen & Crabtree, 2006). To achieve reflexivity, I drafted numerous memos comprising a reflexive journal of sorts. Memoing in this way helped to bracket my bias in this study, which was not difficult as my undergraduate experience was not as a student veteran, so I merely had to bracket my perspectives that veterans are generally successful and be open to contributing factors to their success. The fact that the success influencer emerged during data collection, and I changed the study to include the voices of these influencers reflects that I had no preconceived notion of the contribution of these success influencers.
 
Appendix C
Example Theoretical Context Section from Chapter One
The theories surrounding independent learning, or distance education, began in the 1960s and 1970s. Otto Peter (1971) argued that distance education was a modern, industrialized form of teaching and learning. Wedemeyer (1977, 1981) determined the essential elements of a distance learner and education, emphasizing responsibility, wide availability of instruction and mixed media, and flexibility with time. In the 1980s, Holmberg (1989) argued that distance education’s theories must be centered around independence, learning, and teaching. By the 1990s, theories about distance education included new concepts such as transactional distance and the relationship between dialogue and structure (Moore, 1990). Interaction between learners, instructors, content, and interfaces also became part of distance education theories as technologies changed the overall structure and control provided to students over their learning (Moore, 1990; Baynton, 1992).
At the turn of the century, distance education had dramatically changed from its original form because of available technologies. Theorists sought to define learning theories for a new form of distance learning called online education. Garrison et al. (2000) defined it as the “community of inquiry” where interactions came cognitively, socially, and through teaching platforms. Siemens (2004) argued for connectivism, which is similar to Harasim’s (2012) Online Collaborative Learning (OCL). Both emphasize the concept that all learning comes from the complex network of groups and their interaction. Pinning down one particular theory for distance education is currently difficult because of the various forms it can be manifested – traditional distance education, blended education, or online education.
There are various theories surrounding crisis response and crisis management. This study is grounded in resilience theory and stakeholder theory of crisis management. For institutions, the resilience theory results in high-reliability organizations (HROs). These organizations have operating functions to safeguard stakeholders from the dramatic effects of crises, such as establishing mindfulness environments, investing in collaborative processes, and continually reflecting and refreshing processes (McNamara, 2021). Stakeholder theory of crisis management divides stakeholders into categories of type and degree of willingness to aid in a crisis, level of influence, and proximity to aid in crisis response (Qingchun, 2017). This study focuses on the faculty of higher education and their participation in crisis-response online teaching.

Notes:

Phenomenology, specifically hermeneutic phenomenology, is the most appropriate qualitative research method and design for exploring the impact of the under-representation of African American male special education teachers on the retention of African American male educators. Phenomenology focuses on understanding the essence and meaning of lived experiences related to a particular phenomenon (Creswell & Poth, 2018). This aligns well with the aim of gaining deep insight into how the scarcity of African American male special education teachers influences the experiences and retention of African American male educators more broadly.

Within phenomenology, hermeneutic phenomenology is specifically oriented toward interpreting the texts of life and emphasizes reflective interpretation of a phenomenon to achieve a meaningful understanding (van Manen, 2016). Hermeneutic phenomenology recognizes the role of the researcher in the meaning-making process. This is valuable for a study on the African American male educator experience, as the researcher’s positionality and reflexivity can enhance the depth of interpretation.

Phenomenology has roots in early 20th century philosophy, with Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger as key founding figures (Käufer & Chemero, 2015). The hermeneutic approach to phenomenology emerged through the work of Heidegger and later Hans-Georg Gadamer, who emphasized interpretation and the metaphor of texts to understand lived experiences (Regan, 2012). Max van Manen further developed hermeneutic phenomenology as a research method in the 1990s, providing practical approaches for investigating lived experience (van Manen, 2016). Since then, hermeneutic phenomenology has been widely used across social science disciplines to explore the subjective and affective dimensions of human experiences with phenomena.

In summary, a hermeneutic phenomenological approach will enable the researcher to gather rich textual descriptions of the lived experiences of African American male educators, engage in reflective interpretation to uncover meanings, and develop a deeper understanding of the phenomenon of under-representation and its impact on retention. The philosophical roots and methodological development of hermeneutic phenomenology make it a fitting choice for this study.

References:

Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches (4th ed.). SAGE.

Käufer, S., & Chemero, A. (2015). Phenomenology: An introduction. Polity Press.

Regan, P. (2012). Hans-Georg Gadamer’s philosophical hermeneutics: Concepts of reading, understanding and interpretation. Meta: Research in Hermeneutics, Phenomenology, and Practical Philosophy, 4(2), 286-303.

van Manen, M. (2016). Phenomenology of practice: Meaning-giving methods in phenomenological research and writing. Routledge.

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