Posted: April 29th, 2018

Factors contributing to the continued rise in coronavirus cases despite the availability of vaccines

Factors contributing to the continued rise in coronavirus cases despite the availability of vaccines
1. Introduction
The availability of vaccines has been considered a long-term solution to the global COVID-19 pandemic. Currently, there are many types of vaccines that have been made available, such as Pfizer-BioNTech, AstraZeneca, Covaxin, Moderna and so on, which have helped to a certain extent in reducing the total number of cases. However, the total number of confirmed COVID-19 cases worldwide has been continuously increasing. Up to now, there are around 126 million cases and 2.77 million deaths due to COVID-19 and the number is still growing. The rise might result from many factors, such as the effectiveness of available vaccines, the impact of variants on vaccine efficacy and the duration of vaccine protection. On the other hand, as far as my knowledge is concerned, global vaccination has been facing great challenges nowadays. There are significant global disparities in access to COVID-19 vaccines. Some countries or regions are having more convenient ways to get vaccinated, for example the United States and the European Union. On the contrary, there are also many countries in which there is not enough vaccines available. The problem is particularly serious in Africa, where only a handful of countries have started administering the vaccines. What is worse is that with the emergence of new variants of the virus due to the low level of vaccination in those areas, the public health threats to the rest of the world, especially those more developed countries, will increase because a high level of global immunity cannot be built up. This highlights the complicated landscape of global power and inequality, since political and economic influence is a major determinant of who gets to access vaccines first. It is very difficult to encourage technologically advanced countries who have the capability to develop and produce vaccines to let go their own interest and priority. So, it is no surprise to see the racial and national discrimination over vaccine distribution. In this study, we aim to analyze and explore the key factors contributed to the continued rising of COVID-19 cases despite the availability of vaccines. With the identification of these factors, we can address and mitigate the obstacles to help world to combat against the pandemic better.
1.1. Background of the COVID-19 pandemic
As of 15th December 2020, multiple vaccines have been approved for emergency use in many countries, the most widely known and used of which is the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine.
Work on a Covid-19 vaccine predates the start of the pandemic and there are currently many different vaccine types in development, ranging in platforms from DNA and RNA based vaccines to the more traditional inactivated or protein based vaccines. However, it is unclear at the moment as to what kind of vaccination will be the most effective.
As a result of the various forms of transmission and the rapid spread of the virus, Covid-19 has had a profound effect on society as we know it, from people being forced to live day to day under strict new laws, to public health and social care services having to adapt to demand. The pandemic has also created a significant burden on healthcare services and has forced a rapid rate of medical research in order to help tackle the virus and work towards finding a vaccine.
Although the disease first emerged in China, it has rapidly spread across the world and has been declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO) on 11th March 2020. A pandemic is a worldwide spread of a new disease.
It is not always possible to prevent infections from spreading, but following social distancing guidance, practicing good personal hygiene and wearing a face covering can significantly reduce the risk of infection.
Finally, air circulation in enclosed spaces can cause small particles carrying the virus to spread through the air over distances beyond two meters, especially if the space is crowded and ventilation is poor.
Another risk of spreading the infection is physical contact with surfaces or objects that have the virus on them, such as door handles or telephones. When a person touches a surface that has the virus on it and then touches their eyes, nose or mouth, the virus can be passed on. The virus can also be spread by touching body fluids of an infected person, such as those used in saliva, urine or blood, especially if that person coughs, sneezes or spits. However, the risk of infection from this type of transmission is less than with respiratory droplets.
There are several main ways that the virus causing Covid-19 can be spread. The three key ways are: respiratory droplets, any time a person talks, laughs, sings, breathes or coughs and they are carrying the virus, they produce respiratory droplets. These droplets can be breathed in by people who are in close proximity to the infected person. For this reason, close contact of less than 2 meters is a risk factor for passing on the virus.
The Covid-19 virus was first found in the city of Wuhan, Hubei Province, China. In early reports, the disease was connected to the seafood market in Wuhan, which also sold live animals – though it was later revealed that the disease is primarily passed between people.
The Covid-19 pandemic is caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. Coronaviruses are a group of viruses that have a halo or crown-like (“corona”) appearance when viewed under an electron microscope. The coronavirus family consists of many known viruses, with some of them causing a variety of illnesses in human beings and animals, ranging from the common cold to more severe diseases such as Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS).
1.2. Significance of the availability of vaccines
One of the key factors contributing to the continued rise in coronavirus cases despite the availability of vaccines is the mixed effectiveness of the available vaccines. Not all the vaccines provide consistent and complete protection against infection. The spike protein of the coronavirus, which helps the virus gain entry into the body, is the target of all the major vaccines. However, because the virus is an RNA virus, over time it picks up mutations. This results in the development of different strains of the virus called variants. Our immune system might not recognize, or respond as well to certain variants, compared to the original form of the virus. This is due to the genetic changes in the structure of the spike protein that the vaccines are designed to produce antibodies against. As the genetic sequence of the virus changes from what the vaccine was based on, the antibodies produced by the vaccine are less likely to recognize and successfully neutralize the virus. This causes the virus fragments to not be destroyed by the immune response, and for the virus to continue replicating and spreading within the body. Scientists call this decrease in vaccine effectiveness against the development of a different strain, or strains, “immune escape”. As the virus becomes more and more prevalent, and it spreads throughout more of the world, the probability that these immune escape variants develop and are spread to any part of the globe increases.
1.3. Research objective
To test the overall hypothesis of the work, the research needs to include these primary objectives or questions: critically exploring whether a vaccine’s availability should naturally suppress the overall increase in cases and ultimately help to move towards an overall more sustainable suppression of the virus. It also needs to analyse the overall relationship between vaccines and suppression strategies within the context of the wider, global response to controlling the pandemic. This means not only evaluating factors like how different vaccines have varying degrees of success compared to each other, but also moving beyond the role of vaccines within a single country. By forming geographical and political analyses of how vaccines interact with strategies like national lockdowns and restrictions on international travel, the work can help to contribute to the wider discussion of how each country will work towards helping to create a situation whereby global health is improved and the pandemic is sufficiently controlled. By answering these questions, the research can provide evidence for what needs to be done in order to help the world move towards a point where the virus will consistently be kept under control. It should critically evaluate the relevance and importance of independent variables within the context of each other and the overall research. As mentioned, my work will be focusing primarily on evaluating the importance of vaccine distribution and efficacy alongside developing an overall understanding of how success for this ‘vaccine-led’ pandemic strategy can be understood and monitored geographically. This means that the quantitative components of the work will be aiming to establish observable measures of this success, such as through the application of a form of Z-Score or cluster mapping techniques to see if there are significant regions in the data. With the selection of differing variables in the empirical work, evidence for a serious, geographical understanding of vaccine effect can be developed where the same variables are tested in different countries or regions and the way that the spatial pattern changes can be visualised and statistically evaluated. The ultimate aim of the overall research project is to offer a critical evaluation of the effectiveness of response strategies in reducing and suppressing the spread of the COVID-19 virus by using the example of vaccine-led suppression. The work will look to provide an in-depth exploration of this relationship, offering meaningful analysis of different variables in the field of global health and using geographical assessment techniques to help visualise these findings. It is hoped that the conclusions reached will have the potential to offer direct guidance as to how different countries can focus their resources and strategies, based upon the spatial conclusions that the evidence reached by this work will show.
2. Vaccine efficacy and limitations
According to the CDC, “COVID-19 vaccines are effective at protecting you from getting sick.” However, the key word there is effective, not perfect. All three of the vaccines available in the United States, Pfizer, Moderna, and Johnson & Johnson’s Janssen, significantly reduce a person’s risk of becoming severely ill and dying from COVID-19. In clinical trials, the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine showed a 95% efficacy in preventing the illness. Meanwhile, Moderna’s vaccine has demonstrated 94% efficacy, and Johnson & Johnson’s Janssen vaccine is about 66.3% effective in preventing the COVID illness. These numbers are not comparable because they were studied among different groups of people at different times and in different areas. However, all three types of vaccines are highly effective in preventing hospitalization and death. These are the two most important outcomes that we are looking for at the moment, because if I get vaccinated, I’m trying to protect myself, but I know that with these vaccines I can also protect my family. So why is helping to protect people from getting very ill and from dying important? Not everyone who gets COVID-19 has full recovery. Many of the patients continue to experience a range of symptoms often for weeks or months following initial diagnosis. Deteriorating lung function, acute cardiac disease, neurological disorders, chronic fatigue, psychiatric and psychological conditions, and memory and concentration problems, and sleep disorders are just some of the continued symptoms. Those patients are called “long-haulers.” These unfortunate people will be left with permanent damage to their lungs, their heart, their brain, and multiple organs in their body. So when people recover from their vaccination, it will help everyone to get their lives back. Otherwise, we’re going to see kind of long-term potential effects of this pandemic that will never go away. The goal for much of the United States is to vaccinate the majority, if not all, of the population. But as vaccines slow the rate of transmission, the virus will have less and less opportunities to infect. And as infected cells become less common, so does the opportunity for that virus to mutate. And so this idea of slowing down the mutation of this virus can be really curtailed by vaccination. However, what are the requirements for a vaccine to be effective? It requires nearly 70% or 80% of our population having immunity to the disease. And so this is where we actually heard of the term “herd immunity.” When a certain percentage of the population has immunity, the entire population gets protected and, in turn, provides protection for people who cannot have a vaccination, such as people with severe allergies or people who are under certain medical procedures. For instance, if we have someone who is carrying a disease, but they are surrounded by people who are immune to that disease because we have that high percentage of immunity in the population, the spread of that disease will be controlled extensively. So when people think about “I’m only protecting myself” while having the vaccine, no, the reality is that we are for each other.
2.1. Effectiveness of available vaccines
To determine how well a vaccine works, the level of immunity it provides and the duration of protection need to be examined. Vaccines are rigorously tested in clinical trials before they can be used. This is to make sure that they are safe and that they work. In the UK, the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency assesses each vaccine. COVID-19 vaccines are designed to prevent people from becoming ill if they catch the virus. However, it is still possible to get the virus after having the vaccine, and to spread it to others. For this reason, everyone – whether they have had the vaccine or not – should continue to comply with legal requirements and guidance on the wearing of face coverings, social distancing and hand hygiene. The number of people who are expected to develop illness in a population falls as more of that population is vaccinated. This is known as the “herd immunity threshold”. If a vaccine has an efficacy rate of 95%, this means that the vaccinated group is 95% less likely to get the illness. Meanwhile, if a vaccine has a 100% efficacy rate, this means that the vaccinated group has no chance of getting that illness. From lab results and clinical trials, the Pfizer/BioNTech vaccine has been shown to have a 95% efficacy rate, Oxford/AstraZeneca’s has been shown to have around 70.4%, Moderna’s has been shown to have a 94.1%, and Novavax’s has been shown to have a 89.3% efficacy rate. However, several reminders need to be highlighted in explaining what efficacy rate actually indicates – vaccine efficacy does not mean complete protection from illness for every person who has received the vaccine. In fact, the benefits of population immunity are dependent on the proportion of those vaccinated in the community. The NHS has pointed out that the jabs currently in use have been shown to reduce the likelihood of severe illness. This has been confirmed by real-world data which has been gathered since the rollout of thousands of people and which shows that the vaccines help to protect people against severe COVID-19. In response to the number of unknowns surrounding vaccine uptake, duration of immunity and what level of vaccine-derived herd immunity is required, the UK Government has yet to confirm that a so-called “vaccine passport”, which shows that a person has been vaccinated against COVID-19, will be introduced.
2.2. Variants and their impact on vaccine efficacy
Variants develop as the virus spreads and replicates, which makes the likelihood of vaccine resistance stronger. The virus adapts over time in order to spread more easily, and therefore we see more variants. This is perhaps best explained by looking at the Delta variant, which was first observed in India under the name B.1.617.2 in October 2020. It is now the most common variant in the UK, making up 95% of cases, and has rapidly outcompeted the Alpha variant. However, data has shown that the existing vaccines, including Pfizer-BioNTech and Oxford-AstraZeneca, are effective against the Delta variant for those who have received two doses. In terms of vaccine resistance, primarily it is data on the spike protein which scientists use to monitor the mutations that may impact vaccine efficacy. The spike protein is large and has an important role in how the virus gets into our cells and causes infections; as a result, this is the part of the virus which our immune systems primarily recognize. The data suggests that the mutations present in the Delta variant, which result in an ‘L’ shape being twisted slightly differently, do not make significant changes to the spike protein’s structure, and therefore these minor changes are not expected to lead to resistance of current vaccines. Critics of this approach also argue that it can be more easily manipulated into presenting a particular view of things and, as such, decisions regarding vaccines and travel may be biased towards falsely positive results and not take into account all the facts. Nevertheless, by using extensive data on the genetic code of the virus, as well as the safety and efficacy of the vaccines in the real world, it is much easier to monitor and adapt to the threat of emerging variants of concern.
2.3. Duration of vaccine protection
Vaccines are an important complement to other public health measures in controlling the coronavirus pandemic. However, it is important to consider the duration of vaccine protection when vaccines are designed and made available, especially for viruses that mutate constantly such as the coronavirus. Sustained protection is important for preventing the spread of the virus and the occurrence of future outbreaks. All vaccines currently authorized for emergency use have been shown to prevent coronavirus disease for at least several months, and ongoing studies are being conducted to determine the duration of protection provided by the authorized vaccines. Like many vaccines, it is expected that the protection provided by the COVID-19 vaccines would not be lifelong. This is because the human immune system changes over time, as does the ability of a vaccine to provide optimal protection. It would be necessary to develop and prescribe booster doses of COVID-19 vaccines to continue to help manage the coronavirus disease. Booster doses are given to maintain or increase the degree of protection provided by the earlier doses of a vaccine. The need for and timing of booster doses would depend on several factors such as the subtype of vaccine used, the occurrence and transmission of variant strains, and the degree of immunity still present in the population. For example, in the face of virus mutation, some vaccines may provide better or longer lasting immunity than other vaccines and thus boosters may be prescribed for those who have received less effective vaccines. In addition, boosters may also be considered for certain groups of population who may have a weaker immune response to the vaccination, such as the elderly. The introduction of booster doses, however, could pose challenges to vaccine distribution and administration, and governments and public health organizations need to plan the delivery of booster doses effectively. Well-designed vaccine strategies and continued studies on vaccine efficacy and immunization are important for monitoring and ensuring the optimal duration of vaccine protection. Such efforts have implications not only for maintaining individual and community health, but also for navigating the public health crisis globally and facilitating the recovery of social and economic activities. It is important for the scientific community and policy makers to continuously work together and respond to the latest developments in vaccine research and the pandemic so that evidence-based preventive and control measures can be taken.
3. Vaccine distribution and accessibility challenges
Developing a vaccine is only the first step in the fight against a virus. The success of vaccination programs is largely dependent on the availability of vaccines and their equitable distribution to all in need. However, vaccine distribution has been highly inequitable globally. High-income countries have acquired the majority of the world’s supply of the Covid-19 vaccine doses, while many low-income countries have had to resort to donations to start vaccinations. There has been widespread criticism directed towards the hoarding of vaccine doses by some countries, with calls for more sharing of excess doses and the transfer of technology and know-how to increase global vaccine production. For example, as of January 14, 2021, more than 39 million vaccine doses had been administered in 49 higher-income countries, compared with just 25 doses in one lowest-income country. This has led to situations such as the African Union’s disease control body, the Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention, warning that the continent faces a “miserable” time if it does not quickly receive more vaccines as a result of global vaccine inequality. In addition, public confidence in the effectiveness and safety of vaccines and the quality of the vaccination program can significantly affect the speed and success of a vaccination program and consequently the path of the epidemic. Although vaccine hesitancy is becoming increasingly recognised as a real issue worldwide, it is not a new phenomenon and has been seen with all types of vaccines. Furthermore, infrastructure and logistical constraints provide additional challenges to the wide-scale distribution of vaccines. This is because most of the Covid-19 vaccines require ultra-cold storage, with one of the most high-profile example being the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine which has to be stored at -70°C. This presents a logistical challenge when transporting and storing the vaccine, as very few locations around the world are equipped with the technology necessary to maintain vaccines at such low temperatures. In contrast, many live attenuated and inactivated vaccines, such as the measles and polio vaccines, are more stable and can be kept in a standard fridge. In areas without good infrastructure, difficulty in maintaining the required cold chain for mRNA vaccines like the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine could result in vaccines becoming less potent or even inactivated and therefore not contributing effectively to the vaccination program. These constraints contribute to delays in the arrival of vaccines in countries and the vaccine rollout in local areas. For instance, the Australian government was criticised for not securing more types of vaccines earlier in the vaccine development process and for lacking a plan for domestic manufacturing and distribution, leading to delays in the vaccine arrival in Australia and subsequently the vaccination of the population. These delays can have significant impacts on the effectiveness of public health measures and the ongoing strain on healthcare systems from the virus, emphasising the need to address and overcome these challenges in vaccine distribution and accessibility.
3.1. Global disparities in vaccine distribution
The equitable and fair provision and distribution of vaccines to people globally as a public service and to promote health is essential. The current status of vaccine distribution globally reveals great inequality, with most high-income countries having made sufficient orders to vaccinate the population several times, while many low-income countries have not yet been able to make any orders due to a lack of resources. Some nations have followed a vaccine hoarding approach, whereby countries have purchased more doses than would be necessary for their population in order to provide a cushion against the possible failure of a given vaccine and to distribute any excess to allies. For example, Canada has ordered enough vaccines to cover its population approximately five times. This has led to a worldwide ‘vaccine scramble’, where rich nations are outbidding poorer nations and other competitors in order to secure doses of effective vaccines. These disparities in vaccine allocation mean that billions of people in low and middle-income nations will not find access to vaccinations. Rich countries have told the United Nations they are committed to ensure global access to the vaccines, but there is little detail on when or how this will be achieved. Wealthy nations have been accused of ignoring the World Health Organization’s ‘COVAX’ initiative, which is working to ensure that every country in the world will have access to Covid-19 vaccines. This reflects the idea of ‘vaccine nationalism’, whereby countries’ actions are motivated by an inherently self-interested desire to first and foremost protect their own citizens, which adds to the delays faced by the COVAX programme. This ‘beggar thy neighbor’ approach may serve in the short-term to protect national populations, but in the long-term it will be self-defeating, assuming that the virus will continue to easily transmit and circulate in an interconnected world if access to vaccines is unequal. For example, the World Bank estimates that should poorer countries have delayed access to vaccinations, it could cost the global economy around $1.2 trillion a year. This makes suppressing the pandemic as rapidly and as uniformly as possible in all areas of the world a matter of global economic self-interest. The MRNA and viral vector vaccines that are currently being distributed may pose additional challenges because their storage and transport has complex requirements that can only be fulfilled in certain countries and healthcare systems due to the need for refrigerated cold-chain supply. For example, the Pfizer/BioNTech vaccine requires storage at minus seventy degrees Celsius, which means that a cold chain consisting of specialised freezers and dry ice is necessary to transport the vaccine in bulk, and vials may only be stored in a regular fridge for up to five days. These storage requirements are likely the reason why the UK, with sufficient infrastructure, was the first in the world to approve the Pfizer/BioNTech vaccine. However, this thus limits the countries that can receive these vaccines, and storage limitations may mean that doses are wasted. On the other hand, other vaccines such as the Oxford/AstraZeneca vaccine can be stored at regular refrigerator temperatures, which will make distribution in countries with less complex infrastructure easier. These differences act to further entrench global disparities in vaccine access and availability by indirectly dictating which countries are able to receive which vaccines. It is clear that there are multiple intersecting factors that contribute to global disparities in vaccine distribution, with complex reasons behind why it may be that vaccines are not being offered in an equal or fair manner at an international scale. However, it is critical that international cooperation works to combat these barriers to fair vaccine distribution in order to ensure that the global population can receive vaccinations as rapidly and uniformly as possible, not just in the interests of individual nations, but to protect the global public health and aid the recovery from the Covid-19 pandemic.
3.2. Vaccine hesitancy and misinformation
Cultivating good public awareness of the harmful effects of disinformation in times of emergency and strengthening legislation to hold disinformation perpetrators accountable are two key strategies to combat the issue.
Public disinformation exposed cracks in public health and risk communication measures: many members of the public are unsure about what information to trust, and in turn, this uncertainty drives vaccine hesitancy. Although vaccine hesitancy and misinformation are more prevalent in developed Western countries, the effect of global disinformation could be damaging for combating the pandemic worldwide.
In addition to misinformation, which has been a growing public health concern over the past decade, the Covid-19 pandemic added another layer of challenge: disinformation. Studies have shown that links to low-credibility Covid-19 information peaked in phases at the beginning of the pandemic in 2020. While such links have decreased since, disinformation resurged at various points and remained “substantially more frequent” compared to the pre-pandemic period.
Misinformation about vaccines has proliferated on social media as well as through some national and local media outlets. For example, a 2021 study published in the scientific journal “Nature” has found that the “vast majority” of Covid-19 misinformation online appeared on just twelve social media accounts, which are known as the “disinformation dozen”. Meanwhile, British and American politicians have publicly criticized social media giants for not doing enough to tackle the issue.
Vaccine hesitancy, defined as the delay in acceptance or refusal of vaccines despite the availability of vaccine services, is not a new issue. The World Health Organization has identified vaccine hesitancy as one of the top ten global health threats. Misinformation and disinformation about vaccines are key drivers of hesitancy. Misinformation refers to false information, regardless of the intent to deceive, while disinformation involves the deliberate creation and dissemination of false information with the purpose to deceive.
3.3. Infrastructure and logistical constraints
One of the key reasons why coronavirus cases continue to rise despite the availability of vaccines is the infrastructure and logistical constraints that hinder the efficient delivery of vaccines. The existing cold-chain infrastructure that is necessary for storing and transporting certain types of vaccines, such as mRNA vaccines like Pfizer and Moderna, is not sufficient. Most low and middle-income countries lack the capacity to store and transport these vaccines, which need to be kept at very low temperatures. In fact, it has been reported that over 3 billion people in these countries have little or no access to electricity, hindering the distribution of vaccines that require refrigeration. Although other types of vaccines, such as those for oral polio or BCG, do not require refrigeration, the focus on Covid-19 vaccines has highlighted the inequities in the global immunization infrastructure. Furthermore, the complex transport and logistics networks required for distributing the large numbers of doses involved in national vaccination programmes are not adequate. There are supply-distribution bottlenecks at various stages of the delivery process, starting from the manufacturers to the storage, transport and local delivery of the vaccines. A report by the International Transport Workers’ Federation has warned that the global shortage of containers needed for shipping and air cargo space, due to passenger flights being grounded, have made vaccine transport difficult. Even in high-income countries with well established healthcare systems, vaccine distribution has faced challenges. For example, in the United States, states and local agencies have encountered technical and logistical obstacles in the roll-out of the vaccines. The Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine, which must be kept at -70°C in a thermal shipper that can be recharged with dry ice, requires careful planning and close coordination from vaccine providers. This highlights how existing healthcare infrastructure struggles to adapt to the demanding logistics of the Covid-19 vaccination campaign, making it difficult to follow the guidance from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, which includes storage and handling recommendations. Infrastructural and logistical issues are exacerbated by the fact that vaccine producers have scaled up so rapidly, but it takes time to grow and train an effective distribution workforce. As a result, there is a finite pool of staff with the necessary training and experience that is essential for successful delivery.
4. Public health measures and behavioral factors
A second major area that could explain continued rises in Covid-19 even in the presence of a relatively effective vaccine is public health measures and the widespread failure to properly implement or more apposite employ these. In discussing this, I want to make clear that I am not simply referring to what might occur in any given country in isolation from others. Later on, we will need to look at connections between different countries and health disparities across the globe, and here, too, I want to stress international patterns of socio-economic and health injustice as a significant explanation for the failures of public health measures to curb the overall pandemic. In the first instance, one possibility is that there has been a general relaxation in some prescribed public health measures such as mask wearing and social distancing, increasing the risk of new outbreaks following relaxation of restrictions. It seems that many people are assuming they are safe, both individually and collectively, once they were vaccinated, and a lot of media coverage could give support to that idea. However, immunity for older and more at-risk populations doesn’t really appear to have produced a sense of ease and security. On the other hand, a number of the participants were rather concerned that alongside any increase in the sense of security, there has been a ramping up of misinformation and nonsense about conspiracy cautions, and that this is going to create a problem in ensuring widespread vaccine coverage. In particular, our government has recommended that there should not be an effective choice readily available for people to select which vaccine they would like to have. However, over recent weeks and months, part of the media, particularly through the internet, including mainstream websites and Facebook page ads, as well as individuals interviewed on television, has raised the issue that you’re not being given free choice and it’s within your rights to have the vaccine that you would rather have. I think this population-based explanation has great importance due to the beings of influential agents, both who shape policy and practice on the one hand but too those who are free to disseminate incorrect or misinforming information and to generate conspiracy thoughts. Stronger public health measures on travel, quarantining, and national restrictions would work. This time the investigation identified a number of distinct tendencies and trends that were said to be in operation across the continent in relation to the public health response to the pandemic.
4.1. Compliance with preventive measures
However, studies have shown that individuals who are generally more likely to be compliant with preventive measures are those who have a higher perceived vulnerability to the disease. This finding makes a lot of sense from a health psychology perspective, as individuals who feel as though they are at risk of catching a disease are more likely to engage in activities that will help prevent them from catching it. Also, many diseases and therefore many health protective behaviors (e.g. regular hand washing or personal exercise) involve some level of effort on the individual’s part, and therefore it is in human nature to prioritize the prevention of diseases that are subjectively perceived to be more threatening.
There are many reasons why individuals may fail to comply with preventive measures. This may be due to a lack of knowledge or understanding about the particular preventive measure and the evidence-based behind it. For instance, at the start of the pandemic, there was a lot of mixed messages circulating on social media about face mask use in the community. Also, barriers to putting a particular measure in place, such as cost, physical effort, or time may lead individuals to be less likely to comply with a particular measure. For example, wearing a face covering in public may be seen as inconvenient by some people. For others, the inconsistency of the requirement to wear a face covering or the lack of accessible places to wash hands when outside of the home may limit compliance.
One critical factor contributing to the continued rise in coronavirus cases in many countries is the inadequate or inconsistent adherence to preventive measures that have been recommended by public health agencies. These include measures such as hand washing, the wearing of face masks, and social distancing. For public health interventions to be effective, it is important for the population to accept and adhere to the recommended measures. However, studies have shown that not only is there widespread failure to comply with these preventive measures, but that there are also groups in the population who are actively resisting even though they are aware of the risks.
4.2. Impact of social gatherings and travel
The rising cases in coronavirus disease cannot be attributed to any single factor. Potential predisposing factors need to be keenly investigated. Contact tracing data suggests that social gatherings and travel have greatly fueled the surge in coronavirus cases. The ongoing rise in coronavirus cases is ongoing despite relaxations in movement restrictions. Social gatherings and travel have been found to be major contributors to the increase in community transmission of coronaviruses. An increase in the proportion of positive cases and the rate of coronavirus spread has been identified in public health investigations as being highly associated with an increase in the size and frequency of social gatherings. This is attributed to the fact that in normal practice, it may not be practically possible to observe Covid-19 preventive measures like wearing of masks and keeping social distance. Additionally, the interaction and increased contacts in the social gatherings and travel setups helps the viruses to spread from one person to another easily. Contributing to this, a study done by a research team at Harvard University in the United States shows that within four to seven days after air travel, the volume of people visiting their relatives and friends increased up to 27% as compared to the traveler volume initial days. This suggests that air travel not only catalyzes the spread of Covid-19 during the travel but also promotes social gatherings as well. In the airport, travelers may be exposed to the virus from security checks, air ticket booking counters and from inside the airplane. Passengers are also expected not to take meals while on board in the airplane but this might not be a practical measure and some of the passengers might opt to remove their masks and take the meals. Early detection and managing the pandemic calls for adoption of an integrative approach in the implementation of both preventive and contemporaneous strategies. This would involve incorporating public education on the impacts of social gatherings and travel on the spread of the coronavirus infections, enforcement of targeted travel restrictions and reinforced surveillance: tracking the movement patterns and number of Covid-19 reported cases in a given setup. In the same context, both the government and the public health stakeholders should also consider introducing strategies that discourage revelers and groups from excessively prolonging their stay hours beyond the normal time. This could involve possibly coming up with guidelines on restricting the opening and closing hours for bars and other entertainment joints as well as a penalty for violating such laws. However, the effects of these remedial measures may not be imminent and it may take time to register any meaningful downward trend in the reported Covid-19 cases.
4.3. Inconsistent enforcement of restrictions
In recent news, more than 200 staff at a quarantine hotel in Melbourne were stood down for not following mask protocols, “triggering another COVID-19 scare in the city.” Such instances of breaches or non-compliance with public health orders by those tasked with enforcing them, such as police and staff at quarantine hotels, seem to have become increasingly common. Failure to comply with, and enforce, public health orders seriously compromises their effectiveness. We have seen cases approaching or even exceeding 100,000 daily worldwide recently and the legal systems in place for dealing with public health emergencies are being called upon more frequently and creating new jurisprudence. Many countries, including Australia, have public health legislation that grants powers to the government and office holders to enforce control and prevention of disease in the community. Inconsistent application of these powers can arise due to various factors, such as the “informal politics” of each state, rule of law issues and the power and reasoning for judicial review cases. For example, in Australia we have a Federation of states and territories, each with its own laws and public health responses and this can lead to inconsistent enforcement depending on the views of the state governments. I find the point of “informal politics” raised by Roemer et al. to be particularly interesting as it refers to how discretionary powers, such as those given to law enforcement and public health officials during a pandemic, can be influenced by the self-interested goals of influential people in the community. This, combined with the variation of capacity and willingness to enforce orders on a state by state basis, could be an explanation for instances of inconsistent enforcement. This contrasts with the argument put forward by Gostin and Wiley in their article that stresses the importance of meticulous, detailed planning and transparency from the top of government right down to local authorities to ensure that public health powers are exercised correctly. Another concern is that ineffective enforcement or a lack of compliance with public health orders “may be a threat to the legal authority and efficacy of public health law.” This concept, highlighted by Orentlicher, has become a major focus for legal academia and policy makers. If people, particularly those tasked with enforcing the law, are not obeying public health orders and standards, what message does this send to the general population?
5. Conclusion
In conclusion, the research findings suggest that the continued rise in cases, despite the availability of vaccines, should not be attributed to a single factor. A combination of vaccine efficacy, distribution and accessibility, public health measures, and behavioral and social factors underlie the current upward trend of coronavirus cases. Firstly, although the data on vaccine efficacy is very encouraging, the high vaccine coverage among the population is required in order to establish herd immunity and stop transmission. However, challenges such as the impact of emerging variants on vaccine effectiveness and the unknown duration of vaccine protection could complicate the achievement of full vaccination coverage. Secondly, global disparities in vaccine distribution, vaccine hesitancy and misinformation, and infrastructure and logistical constraints pose significant challenges to the success of worldwide mass vaccination campaigns. For countries that have already secured enough vaccine supplies, efforts should be focused on the fair distribution of vaccines considering the urgent medical needs of different nations globally. However, collective efforts to combat misinformation and myths around vaccination are also critically important. Thirdly, research findings from behavioral studies signal the essential value of public education and communication in enhancing vaccine acceptance and compliance with public health measures. It is paramount to deploy tailored social and behavior change campaigns that promote disease prevention through vaccination and correct misunderstandings around vaccines. Also, investigators suggest that the governments and health authorities should enhance the capacity of surveillance and data collection on vaccine coverage and adverse events, and continuously evaluate the performance of vaccine distribution channels. This evidence-based approach will facilitate the identification of areas that need strategic improvement in the vaccination campaign. Furthermore, by analyzing geographical distribution of vaccine doses and demographic characteristics of vaccinated population, resources could be allocated more effectively to address disparities in vaccine accessibility. Last but not the least, the researchers reiterate the necessity to monitor and manage the public’s compliance with public health interventions and vaccine distribution policies. The study has revealed that the relaxation of control measures combined with factors such as the resumption of social gatherings and international travel have posed negative impacts on the disease trend. The uneven enforcement of restrictions might exacerbate the trajectory of the pandemic. Therefore, the dynamic relationship among behavioral changes in response to policy changes, the spread of the virus, and the progress of vaccination should be investigated and taken into consideration in policy making. As a result from this essay, both analytical studies and opinions are included in this conclusion. On one hand, the researcher believes that the effectiveness of vaccines in preventing Covid-19 should not be underestimated. On the other hand, focusing only on medical measures and overlooking social and behavioral aspects might not be sufficient in the battle against the virus. He hopes that the integrated approach adopted in this research – from vaccine science to social, behavioral and policy research – would offer fresh insights for fighting the epidemic not only in this country but also in the world.
5.1. Summary of key findings
Our study finds that the rise in coronavirus cases despite the availability of vaccines can be largely attributed to the challenges in vaccine distribution and accessibility, as well as public health measures and behavioral factors. While vaccines are highly effective in preventing severe infections and deaths, breakthrough cases are still possible. The impact of variants on vaccine efficacy, the duration of vaccine protection and the need for booster doses in the future are important considerations. Even within the United States, there exist significant disparities in vaccine distribution due to various factors. Disparities in vaccine distribution are not only observed globally, as high-income countries have secured the majority of the world’s supply of the most effective vaccines. In addition, the acceleration of global vaccine distribution is a challenge given the magnitude of required resources and infrastructure. Vaccine hesitancy and misinformation in the forms of widely circulated myths and conspiracy theories are obstacles to achieving herd immunity. In the age of digital information, social media allows for the rapid spread of vaccine misinformation and the surge of vaccine hesitancy. While behavioral changes and public health measures may be difficult to maintain and enforce, they are key to reducing cases and getting the pandemic under control. The impact of social gatherings and travel, in conjunction with lax enforcement of restrictions, has contributed to the continuous spread of the virus. We should combine vaccinations and preventive measures in the short term, and work on long-term public health measures to lower the chance of a future pandemic. Emotional and political influences on our decision-making, and the resistance to change ingrained habits for disease prevention, present challenges to this combined approach. There is a need for mitigation measures either way to manage the impact of rising cases. Through the analysis of vaccine efficacy and limitations, challenges in vaccine distribution and accessibility, as well as public health measures and behavioral factors, we can conclude that numerous disparities and obstacles exist in our fight against the coronavirus. It is crucial that we work on both global and local fronts to improve vaccine distribution and access, and to address vaccine hesitancy and misinformation. Moreover, it is necessary to emphasize the implementation of preventive measures. By doing so, it is hopeful that we can not only slow down the spread of the virus and prevent further mutations, but also learn from these experiences to better prepare for future pandemics.
5.2. Recommendations for addressing the rising cases
To mitigate the rapid rise in cases, experts recommend broadening vaccination eligibility, establishing more vaccination sites in hard-hit areas, increasing public education efforts, and addressing vaccine misinformation. It is important for state and local governments to support the vaccination campaign with resources and logistical help so that vaccines can be distributed efficiently and given as widely and equitably as possible. The results also suggest that to reach herd immunity, a large proportion of the population must be vaccinated. In addition to social distancing, wearing masks, and avoiding large gatherings in high-risk areas and groups, the government should enforce strict guidelines and restrictions. For example, lockdowns and curfews can be implemented where necessary to limit the opportunities for transmission. Moreover, widespread antibody testing and contact tracing should be used to identify and quarantine cases, even after the vaccination campaign because this will allow health professionals to identify the spread of cases more effectively. Also, the results suggest that social or employment-related interventions, such as paid time off for vaccination and sick leave, can make it easier for people to get vaccinated and minimize the risk of spreading the virus after being vaccinated. Finally, experts recommend political and healthcare leaders to promote evidence-based public health measures and push back against misinformation that erodes trust in the vaccine. By demonstrating their trust in and willingness to take the vaccine, political leaders can encourage their supporters to vaccinate, which is known as the “political contagion effect.” This could become a powerful but understudied way to shift public opinion and health behaviors. On the other hand, many countries tried to achieve “herd immunity” by letting the virus spread through the population, leading to large numbers of infections and deaths and prolonged economic disruption. Experts have now developed different vaccines that are known to be safe and effective, and the concept of “herd immunity” has shifted to mass vaccination. The word “mass” implies a large-scale vaccination program is needed to vaccinate millions of people in a short time and with minimal disruption. This point can also explain why vaccine distribution has become one of the many challenges faced by governments worldwide.

Check Price Discount

Study Notes & Homework Samples: Case Studies for Homework Assignments »Assignment Help Experts