Posted: June 11th, 2021

IHP 310 – Pathophysiology and Pharmacology Concepts

The Interplay of Pathophysiology and Pharmacology in Disease Management

Pathophysiology and pharmacology are two critical fields that form the foundation of modern medicine. Pathophysiology is the study of the functional changes associated with disease or injury, while pharmacology investigates the effects of drugs on living organisms (Ritter et al., 2019). The intricate relationship between these disciplines plays a pivotal role in understanding disease processes and developing effective treatment strategies. This paper explores the interplay of pathophysiology and pharmacology in disease management, highlighting their significance in advancing medical knowledge and patient care.

Understanding Disease Mechanisms through Pathophysiology
Pathophysiology provides a comprehensive understanding of the underlying mechanisms that contribute to the development and progression of diseases. By studying the molecular, cellular, and systemic changes that occur in response to pathological stimuli, researchers can identify key targets for therapeutic interventions (Kumar et al., 2018). For instance, in cardiovascular diseases, pathophysiological studies have revealed the role of endothelial dysfunction, inflammation, and oxidative stress in the development of atherosclerosis (Libby et al., 2019). This knowledge has led to the development of targeted therapies, such as statins and antiplatelet agents, which aim to modulate these pathological processes.

Pharmacological Interventions Based on Pathophysiological Insights
Pharmacology leverages the understanding of disease pathophysiology to develop targeted therapeutic approaches. By identifying the molecular pathways and receptors involved in disease processes, pharmacologists can design drugs that specifically modulate these targets (Rang et al., 2019). For example, in the treatment of type 2 diabetes, the discovery of the role of incretin hormones in glucose homeostasis led to the development of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists and dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors (Drucker, 2018). These drugs enhance insulin secretion and improve glycemic control by targeting the incretin system, which is impaired in patients with type 2 diabetes.

Personalized Medicine: Tailoring Treatments to Individual Pathophysiology
The interplay of pathophysiology and pharmacology has paved the way for personalized medicine, an approach that tailors treatments to an individual’s unique genetic, molecular, and pathophysiological profile. By understanding the specific pathophysiological mechanisms at play in an individual patient, clinicians can select the most appropriate pharmacological interventions (Hamburg & Collins, 2010). Pharmacogenomics, a branch of pharmacology that studies the influence of genetic variations on drug response, has been instrumental in advancing personalized medicine. For instance, in cancer treatment, the identification of specific genetic mutations, such as EGFR mutations in non-small cell lung cancer, has led to the development of targeted therapies like gefitinib and erlotinib (Schaake et al., 2019). These drugs are selectively prescribed to patients whose tumors harbor these mutations, improving treatment efficacy and minimizing adverse effects.

The interplay of pathophysiology and pharmacology is a driving force behind the advancement of medical knowledge and the development of effective disease management strategies. By understanding the underlying mechanisms of diseases through pathophysiological studies, researchers can identify novel therapeutic targets and design targeted pharmacological interventions. This synergistic relationship has revolutionized the field of medicine, enabling the development of personalized treatments that are tailored to an individual’s unique pathophysiological profile. As our understanding of disease processes continues to expand, the integration of pathophysiology and pharmacology will undoubtedly lead to more precise and effective approaches to disease management, ultimately improving patient outcomes and quality of life.

References
Drucker, D. J. (2018). Mechanisms of action and therapeutic application of glucagon-like peptide-1. Cell Metabolism, 27(4), 740-756. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2018.03.001

Hamburg, M. A., & Collins, F. S. (2010). The path to personalized medicine. New England Journal of Medicine, 363(4), 301-304. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp1006304

Kumar, V., Abbas, A. K., & Aster, J. C. (2018). Robbins basic pathology (10th ed.). Elsevier.

Libby, P., Buring, J. E., Badimon, L., Hansson, G. K., Deanfield, J., Bittencourt, M. S., Tokgözoğlu, L., & Lewis, E. F. (2019). Atherosclerosis. Nature Reviews Disease Primers, 5(1), 56. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41572-019-0106-z

Rang, H. P., Ritter, J. M., Flower, R. J., & Henderson, G. (2019). Rang & Dale’s pharmacology (9th ed.). Elsevier.

Ritter, J. M., Flower, R., Henderson, G., & Rang, H. P. (2019). Rang & Dale’s pharmacology (9th ed.). Elsevier.

Schaake, W., van Bekkum, K. M., van der Drift, M. A., van der Hoeven, J. G., & Janssen, J. P. (2019). Targeted therapy for non-small-cell lung cancer: A narrative review. Respiratory Medicine, 161, 105854. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rmed.2019.105854

Example Coursework Assignment:

IHP 310 – Pathophysiology and Pharmacology Concepts

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Final Project 3-3 Milestone One IHP 310 SNHU
IHP 310 2 1. Patient history Here, Ms. Sally Pire is the discharged patient who is from Cherry Street Almond, NY. She is a 60-year-old white female who works as a nurse’s assistant. The patient has a history of gastritis and alcohol problems because of the heavy consumption of alcohol in her life. Thus, the irregular liver capacity test has been conducted by seeing the increasing health problems in her, which resulted in admitting the patients. The medical health workers admitted Sally Pire on 06-30-YYYY for further testing and observation in the hospital. While she was in the observation, the medical staff have identified that she was diagnosed with arteriosclerotic cardiovascular complications because of the alcohol abuse complications in her body. Along with that, the test results have shown that she had a fractured wrist because of the inebriation. Here, the family history has also been identified where it has found that her brother has had a heart attack that is related to coronary artery disease in the past. In addition, Sally Pire’s chart report says that there is a family history of cardiovascular disease on her father’s side and alcoholism on her mother’s side. 2. Patient Diagnosis The patient Ms. Sally Pire was diagnosed with Arteriosclerotic cardiovascular disease, bacterial pneumonia, history of hypokalemia, history of gastritis, and history of alcoholism. And she was admitted to the Global Care Medical Center. Ms. Sally Pire has also experienced mellow angina as she was already having an arm fracture in the past. But at the time of discharge, the patient was only diagnosed with arteriosclerotic cardiovascular disease and bacterial pneumonia. Also, it is already mentioned that the patient has a family history of coronary artery disease from their brother’s side, cardiovascular disease on her father’s side and a history of alcoholism on her mother’s side. The family diagnosis history
IHP 310 3 has also affected the patient. In addition, she is also a smoker and suffering from a known allergy to aspirin. 3. Symptoms of Patient When Ms. Sally Pire visited the hospital, she claimed that she was facing some upper respiratory symptoms. As she has already reached the age of 60, the Global Care Medical Center has asked the lady to take immediate admission to the hospital and stay in observation. The medical staff observed all the symptoms that included chills, sweats, fever, and cough. Thus, the medical staff referred her to go for a chest X-ray by observing the shortness of breath and cough condition in her body. This test result confirmed that she has bacterial pneumonia in the left lung field. After the diagnosis of pneumonia, the medical staff has taken the X-ray report to give the patient their best treatments. For instance, a CBC count has been conducted to understand the high white blood cell count. Also, a CMP Test was ordered to observe the potassium levels of the patient. In addition, additional X-rays were recorded to determine the clearance of bacteria in the lungs and accordingly, the antibiotics were given to the patient. Moreover, a sputum culture was ordered for the patient to determine the type of bacteria and the number of bacteria present in the patient’s lungs. This sputum culture also helped in identifying bacterial pneumonia that was present in both lungs of the patient. During the patient’s physical exam, the important vitals taken were respirations 24, fever 102, and pulse 90. Apart from that, a urinalysis was also ordered to identify the abnormalities to the urine, such as sugar, blood, bacteria, and others. 4. Alternate Diagnosis
IHP 310 4 While observing the patient’s chart, it was identified that she had bacterial pneumonia, but later her X-ray had concluded that she was also suffering from bilateral bacterial pneumonia. 5. Pathophysiology It is expected that bacterial pneumonia could have occurred because of nosocomial pneumonia. Nosocomial pneumonia is the form of pneumonia in which the symptoms can be witnessed as late as 14 days of hospital discharge or after more than 48 hours or 2 days of hospital admission (Skřičková, 2017). 6. Pharmacological Grouping There are certain medications like Lasix 20 milligrams a day, Lanoxin 0.125 milligrams a day, and Klotrix tablets 1 tablet three times daily that have been taken by the patient before taking admission to the hospital. 7. Specific medications Among these specific medications, Lasix is prescribed by the doctor to move the liquid away from the heart and Lanoxin to control the coronary illness. Also, some antibiotics have been prescribed to control the bacteria in the lungs. Thus, Ms. Sally Pire is advised to follow certain medications upon discharge such as Lanoxin (0.125mg daily), Lasix (20mg daily), Afrin nasal spray (2 squeezes in each nostril every 12 hours), Klotrix (1 tablet, 3x a day), Erythromycin (333mg 3x a day), and Enalapril (500mg 4x a day). These medications are helpful to reduce the deposits of primary material on the coronary arteries (Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 2020). 8. Impact
IHP 310 5 Here, the patient was prescribed to take aspirin, which is the biggest mistake done by the physician because she has already mentioned that she was allergic to aspirin. Another odd thing is that many nurses administered the aspirin but could not note that it was allergic to the patient. Also, the physician thought to give the best drugs for pneumonia, i.e. Bacterium DS, carbapenems, 4th era cephalosporin’s, Fluoroquinolones, and aminoglycosides she didn’t show the results.
IHP 310 6 References Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. (2020, June 5). Coronary artery disease. Mayo Clinic. Retrieved November 13, 2021, from https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/coronary-artery-disease/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20350619. Skřičková J. (2017). Nozokomiální pneumonie [Nosocomial pneumonia]. Vnitrni lekarstvi, 63(7-8), 518–526.
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Concepta anda Etiology:a Atelectasisa isa aa completea ora partiala collapsea ofa thea entirea lunga ora areaa (lobe)a ofa thea lung.a Ita occursa whena thea tinya aira sacsa (alveoli)a withina thea lunga becomea deflateda ora possiblya filleda witha alveolara fluida (Mayoa Clinica 2018).a a Thisa meansa thea affecteda lobea ofa thea lunga cannota inflatea anda deflatea causinga normala respirations. Atelectasisa cana happena whena therea isa ana airwaya blockage,a whena pressurea outsidea thea lunga keepsa ita froma expanding,a ora whena therea isa nota enougha surfactanta fora thea lunga toa expanda normally.a Whena youra lungsa doa nota fullya expanda anda filla witha air,a theya maya nota bea ablea toa delivera enougha oxygena toa youra blood.a (Nationala heart,a lunga anda blooda institutea 2021)a a Classification:a Atelectasisa cana bea categorizeda intoa obstructivea anda non-obstructivea atelectasis.a (Grotta &a Dunlap,a 2019).a Obstructivea atelectasisa cana bea causeda bya aa foreigna body,a mucusa pluga ora aa tumoura insidea thea airway.a Nona obstructivea atelectasisa cana bea causeda bya injury,a pleurala effusion,a pneumonia,a pneumothorax,a scarringa ofa thea lunga tissuea ora tumoura (Mayoa Clinica 2018) Clinicala Manifestationsa (Symptomsa anda Signs):a Whilea ina somea casesa therea area noa symptomsa witha milda cases,a morea severea casesa havea symptomsa thata area presenta anda theya area usually: • Difficultya breathing • Rapid,a shallowa breathing • Wheezing • Cough • Fever • Lowa blooda oxygen Diagnostica Tests:a • Chesta X-ray, • Chesta CTa and/ora thoracica ultrasonography • fibreoptica bronchoscopya (Grotta &a Dunlap,a 2019). • Bronchoalveolara lavage a a References Grott,a K.,a &a Dunlap,a J.a D.a (2019,a Augusta 22).a Atelectasis.a Nih.gov;a Stata Pearlsa Publishing.a https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545316/
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IHP 310 Module Three Disorders List 1. Infectious rhinitis 2. Sinusitis 3. Epiglottitis 4. Laryngitis 5. Laryngotracheobronchitis 6. Acute bronchitis 7. Influenza 8. Bronchiolitis 9. Pneumonia 10. Tuberculosis 11. Asthma 12. Chronic bronchitis 13. Emphysema 14. Cystic fibrosis 15. Lung cancer 16. Pleural effusion 17. Pneumothorax 18. Acute respiratory distress syndrome 19. Atelectasis 20. Acute respiratory failure

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IHP 310 Module Four Case Study Guidelines and Rubric Overview: This case study will help you practice analyzing a patient record, which will assist you in preparing for the final project. This case will focus specifically on endocrine and neural drug treatment. Prompt: Consider the following scenario: Bill, age 70, came to the examination accompanied by his wife. Bill was tall and cheerful, greeted the doctor warmly, and then started walking around the room a bit until he realized he was supposed to sit down. As the physician asked Bill questions for the history, he answered some, and smiled at all of the questions. Bill’s wife, Cecilia, filled in the answers that Bill was not sure of. Both Bill and Cecilia seemed to be used to her supportive role in helping Bill remember things. Bill had retired as an accountant two years earlier. In the period since retirement, Bill had reached the point that he could not balance his checkbook. Cecilia handled that task, as well as handling money and change while shopping. This change in Bill’s use of numbers was so sudden, she said, that she wondered if something could be done to help Bill. Bill smiled at both Cecilia and the doctor, and shrugged his shoulders. After doing a thorough physical exam, a psychometric evaluation, and a cranial MRI, the final diagnosis was Alzheimer’s disease. The doctor ordered some medications specifically for this disease. An anticholinergic was prescribed to cure the disease. The physician also ordered vitamins B1, B6, B12, and E. Nutritional support, physical exercises, cognitive activities, safety precautions, and other suggestions were recommended. In a short paper, the following critical elements must be addressed: ● Identify the incorrect medication/drug classification/treatment and explain why it is incorrect. ● What drug classification would you use instead? Why? ● Provide an example of a generic medication from each drug classification. How would each of the medications/treatments in the scenario act on the patient’s body? Support your answer with relevant resources. Rubric Guidelines for Submission: Your answers to the questions can be in short-answer or bullet-point form when appropriate. Use 12-point Times New Roman font, one-inch margins, and APA format for any citations.
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IHP 310 Module One Journal Guidelines and Rubric Overview: Journal activities in this course are private between you and the instructor. For this course, you will complete a patient record analysis. This journal assignment will help you begin thinking about your final project and any questions you have. It is always good to get started early. Prompt: Review the Final Project Guidelines and Rubric document to examine the requirements of the patient record analysis. You may also want to review the following documents:  Final Project Patient File  Final Project Checklist  Final Project Milestone One Guidelines and Rubric  Final Project Milestone Two Guidelines and Rubric In your journal assignment, reflect on the following questions: ● What are the expectations for your final project? ● What should the final deliverable look like? ● Post three questions you have about the final project or the course. These can be any three questions, including general questions you have about assignments, what you might learn in this course, or how it will be useful to you. The goal of this last piece of the journal is to start a conversation with your instructor. Rubric Guidelines for Submission: This journal should be at least two paragraphs in length, with double spacing, 12-point Times New Roman font, and one-inch margins. All references should be cited in APA format. Submit assignment as a Word document

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Concepta anda Etiology:a Herniateda intervertebrala diska isa aa spinea conditiona thata thea annulusa fibrosusa ofa thea spinala diska isa soa damageda thata ita causesa nucleusa pulposusa ofa thea diska herniate,a causinga pressurea ona thea nervesa and/ora spinala cord.a Thea mosta commona causea comesa witha age,a asa humansa agea thea nucleusa pulposusa becomesa lessa hydrateda anda weakens.a Thea 2nda mosta causea isa traumaa (accidentala movements,a falls,a cara accidents.)a Anothera commona causea isa connectivea tissuea disorders,a congenitala disordersa sucha asa shorta pediclesa (Rubena Ngnitewea Massaa &a Mesfin,a 2018).a Thea commona areasa ina thea spinala corda area lumbara anda cervical. Classification:a Therea area 4a stagesa ofa Herniateda intervertebrala diska ata thea Nucleusa pulpiosusa (Lachman,a 2015).: • Diska bulging • Protrudeda nucleusa pulposusa (protrusion). • Herniateda nucleusa pulposusa (extrusion). • prolapsea ofa thea nucleusa pulposus. Clinicala Manifestationsa (Symptomsa anda Signs):a Lega pain,a Lega weakness,a arma and/ora lega paina anda numbnessa anda tinglinga (Mayoa Clinica fora Medicala Educationa anda Research,a 2018). Diagnostica Tests:a Thea physiciana maya performa aa neurologicala exam.a Thea followinga imaginga usuala confirmsa diagnosis:a MRI,a CTa scan,a Myelogram.a Electromyographya (EMGa anda nervea conductiona studiesa cana detecta thea extenta ofa nervea damagea (Mayoa Clinica fora Medicala Educationa anda Research,a 2018). a a References: Lachman,a D.a (2015).a Analysisa ofa thea clinicala picturea ina patientsa witha osteoarthritisa ofa thea spinea dependinga ona thea typea anda severitya ofa lesionsa ona magnetica resonancea imaging.a Reumatologia/Rheumatology,a 53(4),a 186–191.a https://doi.org/10.5114/reum.2015.53995 Mayoa Clinica fora Medicala Educationa anda Research.a (2018).a Herniateda diska -a Symptomsa anda causes.a Mayoa Clinic.a https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/herniated-disk/symptoms-causes/syc-20354095 Rubena Ngnitewea Massa,a &a Mesfin,a F.a B.a (2018,a Octobera 27).a Herniation,a Disc.a Nih.gov;a StatPearlsa Publishing.a https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441822/

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IHP 310 Milestone Two Guidelines and Rubric Overview: In this milestone, you will submit your review of a recent patient chart located in the Final Project Patient File. You will discuss the reason for the patient’s visit, including the symptoms, signs, and potential treatment. Specifically, the following critical elements must be addressed: II. Recent Visit Analysis a) Explain why the patient has returned to the doctor’s office. What symptoms and signs is the patient experiencing? b) Analyze the new symptoms and signs to determine whether the past diagnosis is still a reasonable conclusion or could have been a misdiagnosis. Use specific information from both the recent visit and the patient history to inform your analysis. c) Based on the new signs, symptoms, and potential diagnosis (if the doctor has made a new diagnosis), discuss what new or potential treatments would be appropriate. Why? Rubric Guidelines for Submission: This milestone should be at least 2 pages in length and submitted as a Word document. All sources should be in APA format.

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IHP 310 Module Four Case Study Guidelines and Rubric Overview: This case study will help you practice analyzing a patient record, which will assist you in preparing for the final project. This case will focus specifically on endocrine and neural drug treatment. Prompt: Consider the following scenario: Bill, age 70, came to the examination accompanied by his wife. Bill was tall and cheerful, greeted the doctor warmly, and then started walking around the room a bit until he realized he was supposed to sit down. As the physician asked Bill questions for the history, he answered some, and smiled at all of the questions. Bill’s wife, Cecilia, filled in the answers that Bill was not sure of. Both Bill and Cecilia seemed to be used to her supportive role in helping Bill remember things. Bill had retired as an accountant two years earlier. In the period since retirement, Bill had reached the point that he could not balance his checkbook. Cecilia handled that task, as well as handling money and change while shopping. This change in Bill’s use of numbers was so sudden, she said, that she wondered if something could be done to help Bill. Bill smiled at both Cecilia and the doctor, and shrugged his shoulders. After doing a thorough physical exam, a psychometric evaluation, and a cranial MRI, the final diagnosis was Alzheimer’s disease. The doctor ordered some medications specifically for this disease. An anticholinergic was prescribed to cure the disease. The physician also ordered vitamins B1, B6, B12, and E. Nutritional support, physical exercises, cognitive activities, safety precautions, and other suggestions were recommended. In a short paper, the following critical elements must be addressed: ● Identify the incorrect medication/drug classification/treatment and explain why it is incorrect. ● What drug classification would you use instead? Why? ● Provide an example of a generic medication from each drug classification. How would each of the medications/treatments in the scenario act on the patient’s body? Support your answer with relevant resources. Rubric Guidelines for Submission: Your answers to the questions can be in short-answer or bullet-point form when appropriate. Use 12-point Times New Roman font, one-inch margins, and APA format for any citations
Discussion Rubric: Undergraduate Your active participation in the discussion forums is essential to your overall success this term. Discussion questions are designed to help you make meaningful connections between the course content and the larger concepts and goals of the course. These discussions offer you the opportunity to express your own thoughts, ask questions for clarification, and gain insight from your classmates’ responses and instructor’s guidance. Requirements for Discussion Board Assignments Students are required to post one initial post and to follow up with at least two response posts for each discussion board assignment. For your initial post (1), you must do the following:  Compose a post of one to two paragraphs.  In Module One, complete the initial post by Thursday at 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time.  In Modules Two through Eight, complete the initial post by Thursday at 11:59 p.m. of your local time zone.  Take into consideration material such as course content and other discussion boards from the current module and previous modules, when appropriate (make sure you are using proper citation methods for your discipline when referencing scholarly or popular resources). For your response posts (2), you must do the following:  Reply to at least two different classmates outside of your own initial post thread.  In Module One, complete the two response posts by Sunday at 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time.  In Modules Two through Eight, complete the two response posts by Sunday at 11:59 p.m. of your local time zone.  Demonstrate more depth and thought than simply stating that “I agree” or “You are wrong.” Guidance is provided for you in each discussion prompt.

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