Posted: April 29th, 2018

Utilizing unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for aerial surveillance and counter-piracy operations in the Arabian Sea

Utilizing unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for aerial surveillance and counter-piracy operations in the Arabian Sea

1. Introduction

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are remotely piloted aerial vehicles which are emerging as an important tool in military and civil spectrum. Their unique feature of performing a task without the onboard presence of a human and their capability of sending aerial information in real time to locations far away has led to an increase in demand in various sectors. Their scope for civil applications is vast, which includes the fields of agriculture, forestry, homeland security, coastal surveillance, law enforcement, and disaster management, to name a few. Many countries are in the process of acquiring the technology, and some have already acquired the systems. UAVs are readily available at different costs and with different specifications. Many advanced countries have their indigenous UAV systems fulfilling their demand, for instance, the Predator series of the USA, Heron of Israel, Searcher of Russia, and so on. But the countries in the developing phase are looking for UAV systems that are comparatively cheaper in cost. The recent terrorist attack on the USA and the London bombing incident have led to an increase in demand for homeland security equipment in India. The loss of many lives due to the Taj Hotel terrorist attack and the 26/11 incident has forced the Indian government to seriously consider coastal surveillance and other security measures executed by terrorists to destroy the peace of the country. India is also facing the problem of piracy, especially in the Arabian Sea, which is causing a huge loss to the economy of the nation. This demands an increase in naval surveillance and the formulation of new techniques to curb piracy. Considering the cost and low availability of naval assets, it is high time to think about alternative solutions, and UAVs are the best fit, keeping in mind our demands. This topic describes the utility of UAVs for aerial surveillance and counter-piracy operations in the Arabian Sea and its feasibility for the same.

1.1 Background

Imaging intelligence (IMINT) has formed part of human existence since time immemorial with past aerial reconnaissance having been conducted through conventional methods such as sketches and photographs which have been taken from manned aircraft. An example of such a mission would be the work carried out by the Italians in 1911 during the Turko-Italian war. The effectiveness of IMINT was greatly increased by the introduction of satellites during the latter half of the 20th century. Their capability was however restricted by the inability to effectively carry out direct tasks, or to respond to rapidly developing situations. They are also very costly, with some of the more modern satellites costing in excess of $800 million. One of the most common tasks for unmanned reconnaissance is surveillance. Today, the United States Air Force describes UAV surveillance as: “The silent eye in the sky, providing real-time intelligence and long at high personal risk. It has been done in some areas of Pakistan and Afghanistan most notably by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). MQ-1 Predators and MQ-9 Reapers are now part of daily military operations in Iraq and Afghanistan. These same UAV’s are also being considered for sea based missions in the future. This would entail the UAV being launched and recovered using aircraft carriers. A study carried out by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) envisioned the future of UAV’s utilising electro-magnetic force and operating from a small stealthy aircraft carrier. This would provide the carrier with a long range, over the horizon ISR capability.” This same study also detailed the effectiveness of a Northrop Grumman RQ-8A Fire scout in counter narcotics operations in the Gulf of Mexico. With the growing demand for UAV’s in surveillance and the multitude of tasks they can carry out it is hard to argue that the days of manned reconnaissance aircraft are not numbered. With naval presence and conventional aircraft becoming increasingly expensive it would not be at all surprising to see that in the next decade many navies and air forces will possess and operate UAV’s to conduct their IMINT requirements.

1.2 Objectives

The main objectives of the research are to evaluate the potential of UAVs in surveillance and counter piracy operations and the repercussions of using UAVs on the local environment. This will be done firstly by evaluating the capabilities of UAVs in comparison to manned aircraft. This relates to the cost-benefit analysis of using UAVs over manned aircraft. The case study will involve comparing the two types of aircraft in conducting surveillance over the Arabian Sea to detect piracy. This will assess the capabilities of each aircraft in this operation after which a judgement will be made as to which aircraft is most cost effective. An additional simulation study will also be conducted to compare the success rates of different tactics in piracy deterrence and prevention. This will allow for an analysis on the type and speed of aircraft required, and the optimum way of using this to prevent pirates from boarding a vessel.
The environmental impact analysis will assess whether the use of UAVs is harmful to the local marine environment. This is an unmanned vehicle; however there is still the possibility of the UAV crashing into the ocean. From a military perspective Kraetsch (2010 PERSUASIVE 10-1) mentions that due to the variety of UAV models available, a risk assessment would have to be carried out to ascertain the likelihood of UAV failure before choosing a specific model. The case of UAVs crashing into the ocean provides the scenario of a UAV with low likelihood of success crashing into the sea; therefore it is assumed that it is the worst case scenario of a UAV mission. This case will be analyzed using information from the SPECIES Impact Model and the simulation of UAV crashes using the scenarios capabilities of the LOGOS tool (Stapel et al., 2010 SIM-OD).

1.3 Scope of the Study

This study is initiated to address the current and future application of UAVs in surveillance and counter-piracy in the Arabian Sea. The study will be centered on UAV military employment and will not consider the implications using UAVs in other sectors such as humanitarian aid, law enforcement, commercial and recreational purposes. It will only cover the potential use of UAVs in Pakistan and on the open seas in the Arabian Sea from 2009 onwards and in part will consider the situation in neighbouring Afghanistan and the coastal regions of India. This study will not cover UAVs in the Abstract ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance Reconnaisance) role over Pakistan, since the primary focus of UAV operations in Pakistan to date has been as a counter-insurgency or antiterrorism tool, and it is beyond the scope of the study to consider the application of UAVs in both roles. This paper will only consider routine and offensive surveillance and the moment it shifts into counter-terrorism will be the boundary of the study, and shifting into airstrikes on suspected terrorism targets will be beyond the scope of the study. Although it is argued that the Pakistani UAV campaign is a prototype for accepted and expanded use of military drones globally and may have implications on the sea also. A final limitation is that this study should not be considered alarmist with regards to the piracy situation, but the issue has been deemed a serious threat to global trade and the free flow of resources.

2. UAV Technology and Capabilities

In terms of capabilities, UAVs are known for their ability to provide high resolution photographs and video footage at relatively low altitudes that can be used as legal evidence in court. This imagery can be used to detect a threat or hostile act in its early stages and can be used as a deterrent when released to the public media. Press (2005) suggested that with the increased usage of UAVs in military operations, it has been linked to the increased targeting and killing of militant leaders and their followers. Additionally, UAV systems are capable of carrying various payloads, with the more advanced systems capable of carrying weapons. UAVs involved in this research are an unarmed platform and focus is primarily on its use as a surveillance tool.

Unmanned aerial vehicles, commonly known as UAVs, provide a viable option for conducting aerial surveillance and monitoring activities without the risk of a human pilot. According to Press (2005), UAVs are seen as a cost-effective device in comparison to other manned aerial platforms with varying operating costs estimated from $2000 to $5000 per flight hour depending on the UAV type and configuration. Estimated costs are relatively low, and the higher end UAV systems are capable of long endurance flights of up to 40 hours. This system is deemed far more cost-effective in comparison to manned aircraft flying equivalent missions.

2.1 Overview of UAVs

The term UAVs typically includes the entire aircraft, data links and telemetry systems, ground control stations, and other support equipment. UAVs range from small hand-launched systems weighing a few kilograms to medium-sized vehicles that can carry a 50 kg payload, to large aircraft capable of surveillance spanning a 300 km radius. Many current UAVs are derived from older human-piloted aircraft. These UAVs tend to be extremely costly to develop and produce and are of limited interest. More recently, development has focused on designing aircraft that are intended from the outset to be UAVs. These aircraft are typically smaller, slower, and stealthier than manned aircraft. They are intended to carry sensors and not people. They tend to be much less expensive than manned aircraft and can be designed with a significantly longer lifespan. The current trend is towards designing UAVs that are smaller and lighter in order to reduce manufacturing and operating costs. A small aircraft can be launched with a catapult or dropped from a larger aircraft, and it can be recovered with a simple arresting hook. Some aircraft are designed to operate only for a single mission and are not recovered at all. Reducing the size of the aircraft presents some challenges related to propulsion and aerodynamics, but the benefits can be significant in terms of cost and the ability to deploy the aircraft in confined spaces.

2.2 Types of UAVs

Electro-optical systems do not come cheap and are very fragile, meaning a stable and slow flight path is required from the UAV to ensure the best quality imaging and increased lifespan of the system. This is not to say that other affordable and expendable systems cannot be used by coalition forces for a cheaper attack towards the problem. A full comparison of the cost and benefits of these systems compared to other forms of attack on piracy in the southeast measures.

Optical sensors are classed as being either passive or active. Passive sensors do not project or emit energy, relying on the background radiation reflected or emitted from the object being observed. Active sensors project energy in the form of infrared or ultraviolet light, microwaves, or radio waves, and then go on to observe the radiation that has been absorbed and re-emitted. This type of sensor would be best to track a possible hijacking without being noticed, as it would give a clear indication of where the energy is being projected and then a clear reading of the target in the surrounding area. This is just one type of sensor, and it is suitable for acquisition functions in spotting.

UAV technology has taken flight in recent years; however, the hunting and spotting functions needed for anti-piracy operations require a specific technology within the umbrella of UAV systems. Target acquisition is the prime function for a UAV system to be utilized for spotting, thus a UAV equipped with a suitable sensor-housing such as an electro-optical system is required. Electro-optical systems enable a sensor or a mixture of sensors to clearly capture images or data from a target using the radiation from an object.

2.3 Advancements in UAV Technology

Another key technology for UAVs is sense and avoid. Currently, because UAVs are controlled from the ground and are not able to autonomously detect and avoid other aircraft, there are severe restrictions on where a UAV can be flown (as experienced by the author during the dissertation project). Therefore, technological advancements which can ensure that UAVs do not collide with other aircraft, or other UAVs, will greatly open up the airspace and provide opportunities for more complex and riskier UAV missions. This is particularly important for naval and military operations where UAVs must be employed in the vicinity of other aircraft. The development of this technology was given a big boost in July 2012 when Congress passed the FAA reauthorization act, which mandated the FAA to provide UAVs with access to the national airspace by 30th September 2015. This has caused the ATC technology provider Searidge to develop an Automated Dependent Surveillance – Broadcast (ADS-B) system for UAVs.

In the field of propulsion, interest has been shown in fuel cell technology, which can significantly increase endurance. Other forms of propulsion are also being investigated (e.g. solar) which can potentially allow UAVs to stay airborne indefinitely. This has already been shown through Qinetiq’s Zephyr, which, in 2010, broke the world record for the longest flight time for an unmanned aerial vehicle at 82 hours. In the same year, Vanilla Aircraft VA001 completed a non-stop flight of more than 7 days, which can potentially provide a permanent UAV solution for maritime surveillance and piracy operations. In 2014, DARPA also announced the development of a UAV with vertical take-off and landing, which can stay aloft for weeks at a time.

In the last ten years, UAVs have significantly gained popularity to the extent that they are currently the most dynamic sector of aerospace development. Over the years, there have been numerous advancements in UAV technology. These improvements have been in various areas such as increasing flight times and range, improving reliability, maintainability, and survivability, increasing the level of autonomy, and increasing the payload capacity.

3. Aerial Surveillance in the Arabian Sea

3.1 Importance of Aerial Surveillance

3.2 Challenges in Aerial Surveillance

3.3 Role of UAVs in Aerial Surveillance

3.4 Case Studies on Successful UAV Surveillance Operations

4. Counter-Piracy Operations with UAVs

Current levels of maritime reconnaissance and surveillance assets from all coalition countries are inadequate in relation to the size of the maritime environment and the volume of traffic that is to be protected. The coalition is unable to identify with certainty specific piracy activity and patterns and trends over time. Collection of intelligence data is limited and hampers all area all source awareness obtained from multiple resources and guidelines. Due to the nature of the shipping in the region and the relatively small numbers of pirate craft operating at any one time, the most cost-effective means of detecting pirate activity is the tactical surveillance of suspicious or known areas of pirate operations.

Piracy is a serious threat in the Arabian Sea. The economic and political factors of the region have led to an increase in piracy activity. Piracy can have an effect on both small and large ships. Specific threats include increased attacks, hostage taking, and hijacking for ransom. Pirate attacks around the coast have also become increasingly violent, often extending out to many miles from the coast. The unmanageable struggle to prevent piracy in the region has led to a joint effort to seek external assistance. This effort has resulted in a call for the help of a number of countries who have historically had an interest in the region, one of these countries is Australia.

4.1 Piracy Threats in the Arabian Sea

Piracy activities in the Arabian Sea, especially those targeting the western coast of the Indian subcontinent, can be considered a classic case of success-breeds-success. Pirates attain success through hijacking and ransoming large merchant vessels, freeing the proceeds to further develop their technology and methods in order to possibly conduct future attacks. In comparison to other regions and types of piracy such as robbing small fishing boats in the Straits of Malacca, piracy in the Arabian Sea is more organised, on a much larger scale, and initiated by well-equipped criminals. According to a former Indian delegate to the United Nations, the root cause of piracy in the Arabian Sea is economic and sociological crises in Somalia which have resulted in creation of a parallel economy in which pirates can earn up to US$10,000 per successful raid, high wages in comparison to the average Somali wage-earner. Due to the gulf between the economic and social conditions of modern India and Somalia, the appeal for pirates to prey on Indian shipping is not expected to diminish in the near future. An unfortunate indicator of the level of threat presented by pirates is the many incidents involving them attacking Indian fishing vessels, resulting in large loss of life, though these incidents are under-reported and receive little notice or action from the international community.

4.2 Strategies for Counter-Piracy Operations

The primary concern surrounding UAV employment for counter-piracy operations is the potential for the UAV to serve as a direct competitor to the pirate skiffs, thus escalating the conditions for violence during an attack. This is a significant concern. It is highly unlikely that pirates would willingly board a high-freeboard merchant ship if they know that they are being observed and tracked. In the past, pirate activity has been centered in areas somewhat removed from their land bases, and active patrolling of these areas by aircraft has led to displacement of the activity to areas closer to shore, thus reducing the time and distance to attack merchant targets. This trend has been observed in the migration of Somali-based piracy from the Gulf of Aden to areas further south and into the Indian Ocean. This displacement presents a significant challenge to counter-piracy aircraft. UAVs could potentially monitor a pirate action group and force a similar displacement to areas closer to shore and their base of operations, thus preventing attacks on merchant shipping in certain areas, but also increasing the danger of a violent attack or hostage situation on mariners.

4.3 Role of UAVs in Counter-Piracy Operations

Gathering actionable intelligence for the identification of piracy patterns and current pirate activity is the critical first step in an intelligence led disruption of pirate action. UAVs are capable of this through a wide variety of surveillance methods. High altitude ISR UAVs such as the USAF Global Hawk and US Navy Broad Area Maritime Surveillance (BAMS) UAV are capable of ocean surveillance across wide areas and extended durations with a variety of sensors. These include the current standard EO/IR sensors and in the future, space permitting, maritime moving target indicator (MTI) radar which can detect targets at sea. This can cue the movement of lower end UAVs such as the US Navy’s new Small Tactical UAV (STUAS) which can deploy from guided missile frigates and provide an organic surveillance capability. STUAS has recently completed successful testing with one air vehicle ‘Hawk’ demonstration a 12 hour ocean surveillance mission and the launch and recovery ability from a naval platform will be essential in enabling persistent surveillance at sea with a minimal footprint. A highly anticipated technology at the cusp of development is the field of maritime unmanned aviation. The cost and risk of manned air assets combined with the limited endurance of small UAVs has largely restricted aircraft surveillance to ship based helicopters and high value carrier aircraft. Departing from traditional runway based air assets an unmanned naval aircraft/maritime UAV has the potential to provide a persistent surveillance capability around the clock at low cost. This has strong potential for intelligence led disruption of piracy via the identification and tracking of suspicious vessels and activity.

The surveillance potential of UAVs can be put to particular use in detecting pirate action across the vast areas of the high seas. Ground forces and surface vessels are severely limited in their ability to monitor and patrol the high seas due to lack of availability and cost of naval assets. A recent report by the UK House of Commons Defence Committee noted that the current scale of RN operations around the Horn of Africa is so modest (an average of one frigate and one supply ship) that the Royal Navy was dismissively said to have simply ‘nodded to the problem, coughed and left’. This lack of a sustained naval presence is an acute problem in deterring and intercepting pirates who are highly opportunistic and mobile, operating across vast areas of open seas, but particularly in the vicinity of vital chokepoints and shipping routes. Key to the redirection of the recent spike in pirate activity is dissuading pirate action in the first place, through demonstrating a high risk and low reward of success in piracy attempts. This requires the ability to frustrate pirate attacks which are typically heavily dependent on locating and exploiting vulnerable shipping. Targeted intelligence gathering and surveillance in pirate prone areas is the best means to locate pirate action and task naval assets for effective interception. However in a resource strapped environment it requires doing so in the most efficient and cost-effective manner. Here UAVs offer a vastly cheaper alternative to manned aircraft with long endurance and the ability to provide persistent surveillance over a target area, without alerting targets to their presence (as opposed to visible deterrence by warships) and without the need to task high value naval assets immediately to act on gathered intelligence.

4.4 Effectiveness and Limitations of UAVs in Counter-Piracy

UAVs are capable of providing nothing short of an optimal platform for pirate data collection. Their ability to stay on station for extended periods of time is superior to that of any manned aircraft, and information regarding the location of pirate activity or capture can be made available to relevant military forces in near real time using modern digital communication/data-link equipment. Unmanned platforms are also able to conduct information gathering missions in a covert manner. A crew with knowledge of impending aerial surveillance may refrain from illicit activity until the aircraft has left the area, so as to not tip off the presence of counter-piracy forces.

According to Michael Froan, an official of Combined Maritime Forces (CMF) who is tasked with maintaining security in the Arabian Sea, the region sees a number of unique cases of piracy, largely due to the lack of a singular definition. Indeed, the Arabian Sea does not suffer greatly from piracy in the sense of terrorism. However, there are large amounts of small-scale operations bordering on mere theft, as well as armed robbery of crews and goods taking place. Primarily, the most common occurrence in this region is the capture and ransom of vessels and their crew. These ransom and hostage situations tend to continue for extended periods of time and have the potential to become volatile and extremely dangerous. Acquiring the precise location of a captured crew and effectively monitoring the developing situation is critical in order to prevent harmful incidents. It is this specific type of event that is targeted with surveillance-based counter-piracy operations using UAVs.

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